While Louis XIV. was prosecuting1 his schemes of aggrandizement2, and William III. was opposing those schemes; while Villeroy, Villars, Marlborough, and Eugene were contending, at the head of great armies, for their respective masters; a new power was arising at the north, destined3 soon to become prominent among the great empires of the world. The political importance of Russia was not appreciated at the close of the seventeenth century, until the great resources of the country were brought to the view of Europe by the extraordinary genius of Peter the Great.
The Early History of Russia. history of Russia, before the reign4 of this great prince, has not excited much interest, and is not particularly eventful or important. The Russians are descended5 from the ancient Sclavonic race, supposed to be much inferior to the Germanic or Teutonic tribes, to whom most of the civilized6 nations of Europe trace their origin.
The first great event in Russian history is the nominal8 conversion9 of a powerful king to Christianity, in the tenth century, named Vladimir, whose reign was a mixture of cruelty, licentiousness11, and heroism12. Seeing the necessity of some generally recognized religion, he sent ten of his most distinguished13 men into all the various countries then known, to examine their religious systems. Being semi-barbarians14, they were disposed to recommend that form which had the most imposing15 ceremonial, and appealed most forcibly to the senses. The commissioners16 came to Mecca, but soon left with contempt, since Mohammedanism then made too great demands upon the powers of self-control, and prohibited the use of many things to which the barbarians were attached. They were no better pleased with the Manichean philosophy, which then extensively prevailed in the East; for this involved the settlement of abstract ideas, for which barbarians had no relish17. They disliked Roman Catholicism, on account of the arrogant18 claims of the pope. Judaism was spurned19, because it had no country, and its professors were scattered20 over the face of the earth. But the lofty minarets21 of St. Sophia, and the extravagant22 magnificence of the Greek worship, filled the commissioners with admiration23; and they easily induced Vladimir to adopt the forms of the Greek Church; which has ever since been the established religion of Russia. But Christianity, in its corrupted24 form, failed to destroy, and scarcely alleviated25, the traits of barbarous life. Old superstitions27 and vices28 prevailed; nor were the Russian territories on an equality with the Gothic kingdoms of Europe, in manners, arts learning, laws, or piety29.
When Genghis Khan, with his Tartar hordes30, overran the world Russia was subdued31, and The Tartar Conquest. Tartar princes took possession of the throne of the ancient czars. But the Russian princes, in the thirteenth century, recovered their ancient power. Alexander Nevsky performed exploits of great brilliancy; gained important victories over Danes, Swedes, Lithuanians, and Teutonic knights32; and greatly enlarged the boundaries of his kingdom. In the fourteenth century, Moscow became a powerful city, to which was transferred the seat of government, which before was Novgorod. Under the successor of Ivan Kalita, the manners, laws, and institutions of the Russians became fixed33, and the absolute power of the czars was established. Under Ivan III., who ascended34 the Muscovite throne in 1462, the Tartar rule was exterminated35, and the various provinces and principalities, of which Russia was composed, were brought under a central government. The Kremlin, with its mighty36 towers and imposing minarets, arose in all the grandeur37 of Eastern art and barbaric strength. The mines of the country were worked, the roads cleared of banditti, and a code of laws established. The veil which concealed38 Russia from the rest of Europe was rent. An army of three hundred thousand men was enlisted39, Siberia was discovered, the printing press introduced, and civilization commenced. But the czar was, nevertheless, a brutal40 tyrant41 and an abandoned libertine42, who massacred his son, executed his nobles, and destroyed his cities.
His successors were disgraced by every crime which degrades humanity; and the whole population remained in rudeness and barbarism, superstition26 and ignorance. The clergy43 wielded44 enormous power; which, however, was rendered subservient45 to the interests of absolutism.
Such was Russia, when Peter, the son of Alexis Michaelovitz, Accession of Peter the Great. ascended the throne, in 1682—a boy, ten years of age. He early exhibited great sagacity and talent, but was addicted46 to gross pleasures. These, strangely, did not enervate47 him, or prevent him from making considerable attainments48. But he was most distinguished for a military spirit, which was treated with contempt by the Regent Sophia, daughter of Alexis by a first marriage. As soon, however, as her eyes were open to his varied49 studies and his ambitious spirit, she became jealous, and attempted to secure his assassination50. In this she failed, and the youthful sovereign reigned51 supreme52 in Moscow, at the age of seventeen.
No sooner did he assume the reins53 of empire, than his genius blazed forth54 with singular brilliancy, and the rapid development of his powers was a subject of universal wonder. Full of courage and energy, he found nothing too arduous55 for him to undertake; and he soon conceived the vast project of changing the whole system of his government, and reforming the manners of his subjects.
He first directed his attention to the art of war, and resolved to increase the military strength of his empire. With the aid of Le Fort, a Swiss adventurer, and Gordon, a Scotch56 officer, he instituted, gradually, a standing57 army of twenty thousand men, officered, armed, and disciplined after the European model; cut off the long beards of the soldiers, took away their robes, and changed their Asiatic dress.
He then conceived the idea of a navy, which may be traced to his love of sailing in a boat, which he had learned to navigate58 himself. He studied assiduously the art of ship-building, and soon laid the foundation of a navy.
His enterprising and innovating59 spirit created, as it was to be expected, considerable disaffection among the partisans60 of the old régime—the old officers of the army, and the nobles, stripped of many of their privileges. A rebellion was the consequence; which, however, was soon suppressed, and the conspirators61 were executed with unsparing cruelty.
He then came to the singular resolution of visiting foreign countries, in order to acquire useful information, both in respect to the arts of government and the arts of civilization. Many amusing incidents are recorded of him in his travels. He journeyed incognito62; clambered up the sides of ships, ascended the rigging, and descended into the hold; he hired himself out as a workman in Holland, lived on the wretched stipend63 which he earned as a ship-carpenter, and mastered all the details of ship-building. From Holland he went to England, where he was received with great honor by William III.; studied the state of manufactures and trades, and sought to gain knowledge on all common subjects. From England he went to Austria, intending to go afterwards to Italy; but he was compelled to return home, on account of a rebellion of the old military guard, called the Strelitz, who were peculiarly disaffected64. But he easily suppressed the discontents, and punished the old soldiers with unsparing rigor66. He even executed thirty with his own hands.
He then turned himself, in good earnest, to the work of Peter's Reforms. reform. His passions were military, and he longed to conquer kingdoms and cities. But he saw no probability of success, unless he could first civilize7 his subjects, and teach the soldiers the great improvements in the art of war. In order to conquer, he resolved first to reform his nation. His desires were selfish, but happened to be directed into channels which benefited his country. Like Napoleon, his ruling passion was that of the aggrandizement of himself and nation. But Providence67 designed that his passions should be made subservient to the welfare of his race. It is to his glory that he had enlargement of mind sufficient to perceive the true sources of national prosperity. To secure this, therefore, became the aim of his life. He became a reformer; but a reformer, like Hildebrand, of the despotic school.
The first object of all despots is the improvement of the military force. To effect this, he abolished the old privileges of the soldiers, disbanded them, and drafted them into the new regiments68, which he had organized on the European plan.
He found more difficulty in changing the dress of the people, who, generally, wore the long Asiatic robe, and the Tartar beard; and such was the opposition69 made by the people, that he was obliged to compromise the matter, and compelled all who would wear beards and robes to pay a heavy tax, except priests and peasants: having granted the indulgence to priests on account of the ceremonial of their worship, and to peasants in order to render their costume ignominious70.
His next important measure was the toleration of all religions, and all sects71, with the exception of the Jesuits, whom he hated and feared. He caused the Bible to be translated into the Sclavonic language; founded a school for the marine72, and also institutions for the encouragement of literature and art. He abolished the old and odious73 laws of marriage, by which women had no liberty in the choice of husbands. He suppressed all useless monasteries74; taxed the clergy as well as the laity75; humiliated76 the patriarch, and assumed many of his powers. He improved the administration of justice, mitigated77 laws in relation to woman, and raised her social rank. He established post-offices, boards of trade, a vigorous police, hospitals and almshouses. He humbled79 the nobility, and abolished many of their privileges; for which the people honored him, and looked upon him as their benefactor80.
Having organized his army, and effected social reforms, he turned his attention to war and national aggrandizement.
His first war was with Sweden, then the most powerful of the northern states, and ruled by His War with Charles XII. Charles XII., who, at the age of eighteen, had just ascended the throne. The cause of the war was the desire of aggrandizement on the part of the czar; the pretence81 was, the restitution82 of some lands which Sweden had obtained from Denmark and Poland. Taking advantage of the defenceless state of Sweden,—attacked, at that time, by Denmark on the one side, and by Poland on the other,—Peter invaded the territories of Charles with an army of sixty thousand men, and laid siege to Narva. The Swedish forces were only twenty thousand; but they were veterans, and they were headed by a hero. Notwithstanding the great disproportion between the contending parties, the Russians were defeated, although attacked in their intrenchments, and all the artillery83 fell into the hands of the Swedes. The victory at Narva settled the fame of Charles XII. Charles, but intoxicated84 his mind, and led to a presumptuous85 self-confidence; while the defeat of Peter did not discourage him, but braced86 him to make still greater exertions—one of the numerous instances, so often seen in human life, where defeat is better than victory. But the czar was conscious of his strength, and also of his weakness. He knew he had unlimited87 resources, but that his troops were inexperienced; and he made up his mind for disasters at the beginning, in the hope of victory in the end. "I know very well," said he, "that the Swedes will have the advantage over us for a considerable time; but they will teach us, at length, to beat them." The Swede, on the other hand, was intoxicated with victory, and acquired that fatal presumption88 which finally proved disastrous89 to himself and to his country. He despised his adversary90; while Peter, without overrating his victorious91 enemy, was led to put forth new energies, and develop the great resources of his nation. He was sure of final success; and he who can be sustained by the consciousness of ultimate triumph, can ever afford to wait. It is the spirit which sustains the martyr92. It constitutes the distinguishing element of enthusiasm and exalted93 heroism.
But Peter not only made new military preparations, but prosecuted94 his schemes of internal improvement, and projected, after his unfortunate defeat at Narva, the union, by a canal, of the Baltic and Caspian Seas. About this time, he introduced into Russia flocks of Saxony sheep, erected95 linen96 and paper manufactories, built hospitals, and invited skilful97 mechanics, of all trades, to settle in his kingdom. But Charles thought only of war and glory, and did not reconstruct or reproduce. He pursued his military career by invading Poland, then ruled by the Elector of Saxony; while Peter turned his attention to the organization of new armies, melting bells into cannon98, constructing fleets, and attending to all the complicated cares of a mighty nation with the most minute assiduity. He drew plans of fortresses100, projected military reforms, and inspired his soldiers with his own enthusiasm. And his energy and perseverance101 were soon rewarded. He captured Marianburgh, a strong city on the confines of Livonia and Ingria, and among the captives was a young peasant girl, who eventually became the Empress Catharine, and to whose counsels Peter was much indebted for his great success.
She was the daughter of a poor woman of Livonia; lost her mother at the age of three years; and, at that early age, attracted the notice of the parish clerk, a Lutheran clergyman: was brought up with his own daughters, and married a young sergeant102 of the army, who was killed in the capture of the city. She interested the Russian general, by her intense grief and great beauty; was taken into his family, and, soon after, won the favor of Prince Menzikoff, the prime minister of the czar; became mistress of his palace; there beheld103 Peter himself, captivated him, and was married to him,—at first privately104, and afterwards publicly. Her rise, from so obscure a position, in a distant country town, to be the wife of the absolute monarch105 of an empire of thirty-three millions of people, is the most extraordinary in the history of the world. When she enslaved the czar by the power of her charms, she was only seventeen years of age; two years after the foundations of St. Petersburg were laid.
The building of this Building of St. Petersburg. great northern capital was as extraordinary as the other great acts of this monarch. Amid the marshes106, at the mouth of the Neva, a rival city to the ancient metropolis107 of the empire arose in five months. But one hundred thousand people perished during the first year, in consequence of the severity of their labors108, and the pestilential air of the place. The new city was an object of as great disgust to the nobles of Russia and the inhabitants of the older cities, as it was the delight and pride of the czar, who made it the capital of his vast dominions109. And the city was scarcely built, before its great commercial advantages were appreciated; and vessels110 from all parts of the world, freighted with the various treasures of its different kingdoms and countries, appeared in the harbor of Cronstadt.
Charles XII. looked with contempt on the Herculean labors of his rival to civilize and enrich his country, and remarked "that the czar might amuse himself as he saw fit in building a city, but that he should soon take it from him, and set fire to his wooden house;" a bombastic111 boast, which, like most boasting, came most signally to nought112.
Indeed, success now turned in favor of Peter, whose forces had been constantly increasing, while those of Charles had been decreasing. New War with Sweden. City after city fell into the hands of Peter, and whole provinces were conquered from Sweden. Soon all Ingria was added to the empire of the czar, the government of which was intrusted to Menzikoff, a man of extraordinary abilities raised from obscurity, as a seller of pies in the streets of Moscow to be a prince of the empire. His elevation113 was a great mortification114 to the old and proud nobility. But Peter not only endeavored to reward and appropriate merit, but to humble78 the old aristocracy, who were averse115 to his improvements. And Peter was as cold and haughty116 to them, as he was free and companionable with his meanest soldiers. All great despots are indifferent to grades of rank, when their own elevation is above envy or the reach of ambition. The reward of merit by the czar, if it alienated117 the affections of his nobles, increased the veneration118 and enthusiasm of the people, who are, after all, the great permanent foundation on which absolute power rests; illustrated119 by the empire of the popes, as well as the despotism of Napoleon.
While Peter contended, with various success, with the armies of Sweden, he succeeded in embroiling120 Sweden in a war with Poland, and in diverting Charles from the invasion of Russia. Had Charles, at first, and perseveringly121, concentrated all his strength in an invasion of Russia, he might have changed the politics of Europe. But he was induced to invade Poland, and soon drove the luxurious122 and cowardly monarch from his capital and throne, and then turned towards Russia, to play the part of Alexander. But he did not find a Darius in the czar, who was ready to meet him, at the head of immense armies.
The Russian forces amounted to one hundred thousand men; the Swedish to eighty thousand, and they were veterans. Peter did not venture to risk the fate of his empire, by a pitched battle, with such an army of victorious troops. So he attempted a stratagem123, and succeeded. He decoyed the Swedes into a barren and wasted territory; and Charles, instead of marching to Moscow, as he ought to have done, followed his expected prey124 where he could get no provisions for his men, or forage125 for his horses. Exhausted126 by fatigue127 and famine, his troops drooped128 in the pursuit, and even suffered themselves to be diverted into still more barren sections. Under these circumstances, they were defeated in a disastrous battle. Charles, struck with madness, refused to retreat. Disasters multiplied. The victorious Russians hung upon his rear. The Cossacks cut off his stragglers. The army of eighty thousand melted away to twenty-five thousand. Still the infatuated Swede dreamed of victory, and expected to see the troops of his enemy desert. The winter set in with its northern severity, and reduced still further his famished129 troops. He lost time by marches and counter-marches, without guides, and in the midst of a hostile population. At last he reached Pultowa, a village on the banks of the Vorskla. Peter hastened to meet him, with an army of sixty thousand, and one of the bloodiest130 battles in the history of war was fought. The Swedes performed miracles of valor131. But valor could do nothing against overwhelming strength. A disastrous defeat was the result, and Charles, with a few regiments, escaped to Turkey.
Had the battle of Pultowa been decided132 differently; had Charles conquered instead of Peter, or had Peter lost his life, the empire of Russia would probably have been replunged into its original barbarism, and the balance of power, in Europe, been changed.
But Providence, which ordained133 the civilization of Russia, also ordained that the triumphant134 czar should not be unduly135 aggrandized136, and should himself learn lessons of humility137. The Turks, in consequence of the intrigues138 of Charles, and their hereditary139 jealousy140, War with the Turks. made war upon Peter, and advanced against him with an army of two hundred and fifty thousand men. His own army was composed of only forty thousand. He was also indiscreet, and soon found himself in the condition of Charles at Pultowa. On the banks of the Pruth, in Moldavia, he was surrounded by the whole Turkish force, and famine or surrender seemed inevitable141. It was in this desperate and deplorable condition that he was rescued by the Czarina Catharine, by whose address a treaty was made with his victorious enemy, and Peter was allowed to retire with his army. Charles XII. was indignant beyond measure with the Turkish general, for granting such easy conditions, when he had the czar in his power; and to his reproaches the vizier of the sultan replied, "I have a right to make peace or war; and our law commands us to grant peace to our enemies, when they implore142 our clemency143." Charles replied with an insult; and, though a fugitive144 in the Turkish camp, he threw himself on a sofa, contemptuously cast his eye on all present, stretched out his leg, and entangled145 his spur in the vizier's robe; which insult the magnanimous Turk affected65 to consider an accident.
After the defeat of Peter on the banks of the Pruth, he devoted146 himself with renewed energy to the improvement of his country. He embellished147 St. Petersburg, his new capital, with palaces, churches, and arsenals148. He increased his army and navy, strengthened himself by new victories, and became gradually master of both sides of the Gulf149 of Finland, by which his vast empire was protected from invasion.
He now reached the exalted height to which he had long aspired150. He assumed the title of emperor, and his title was universally acknowledged. He then meditated151 a Peter Makes a Second Tour. second tour of Europe, with a view to study the political constitutions of the various states. Thirteen years had elapsed, since, as a young enthusiast152, he had visited Amsterdam and London. He now travelled, a second time, with the additional glory of a great name, and in the full maturity153 of his mind. He visited Hamburg, Stockholm, Lubec, Amsterdam, and Paris. At this latter place he was much noticed. Wherever he went, his course was a triumphal procession. But he disdained154 flattery, and was wearied with pompous155 ceremonies. He could not be flattered out of his simplicity156, or the zeal157 of acquiring useful knowledge. He visited all the works of art, and was particularly struck with the Gobelin tapestries158 and the tomb of Richelieu. "Great man," said he, apostrophizing his image, "I would give half of my kingdom to learn of thee how to govern the other half." His residence in Paris inspired all classes with profound respect; and from Paris he went to Berlin. There he found sympathy with Frederic William, whose tastes and character somewhat resembled his own; and from him he learned many useful notions in the art of government. But he was suddenly recalled from Berlin by the bad conduct of his son Alexis, who was the heir to his throne. He was tried, condemned159, disgraced, humiliated, and disinherited. He probably would have been executed by his hard and rigorous father, had he not died in prison. He was hostile to his father's plans of reform, and indecently expressed a wish for his death. The conduct of Peter towards him is generally considered harsh and unfeeling; but it has many palliations, if the good of his subjects and the peace of the realm are more to be desired than the life of an ignominious prince.
Peter prosecuted his wars and his reforms. The treaty of Neustadt secured to Russia, after twenty years of unbroken war, a vast increase of territory, and placed her at the head of the northern powers. The emperor also enriched his country by opening new branches of trade, constructing canals, rewarding industry, suppressing gambling160 and mendicity, introducing iron and steel manufacture, building cities, and establishing a vigorous police.
After having settled the finances and trade of his empire, subdued his enemies at home and abroad, and compelled all the nobles and clergy to swear fealty161 to the person whom he should select as his successor, he Elevation of Catharine. appointed his wife, Catharine; and she was solemnly crowned empress in 1724, he himself, at her inauguration162, walking on foot, as captain of her guard. He could not have made a better choice, as she was, in all substantial respects, worthy163 of the exalted position to which she was raised.
In about a year after, he died, leaving behind him his principles and a mighty name. Other kings have been greater generals; but few have derived164 from war greater success. Some have commanded larger armies; but he created those which he commanded. Many have destroyed; but he reconstructed. He was a despot, but ruled for the benefit of his country. He was disgraced by violent passions, his cruelty was sanguinary, and his tastes were brutal; but his passions did not destroy his judgment165, nor his appetites make him luxurious. He was incessantly166 active and vigilant167, his prejudices were few, and his views tolerant and enlightened. He was only cruel when his authority was impeached168. His best portraiture169 is in his acts. He found a country semi-barbarous, convulsed by disorders170, a prey to petty tyrannies, weak from disunion, and trembling before powerful neighbors. He left it a first-class power, freed in a measure from its barbarous customs, improved in social life, in arts, in science, and, perhaps, in morals. He left a large and disciplined army, a considerable navy, and numerous institutions for the civilization of the people. He left more—the moral effect of a great example, of a man in the possession of unbounded riches and power, making great personal sacrifices to improve himself in the art of governing for the welfare of the millions over whom he was called to rule. These virtues171 and these acts have justly won for him the title of Peter the Great—a title which the world has bestowed172 upon but few of the great heroes of ancient or modern times.
The reign of Charles XII. is intimately connected with that of Peter the Great; these monarchs173 being contemporaries and rivals, both reigning174 in northern countries of great extent and comparative barbarism. The reign of Peter was not so exclusively military as that of Charles, with whom war was a passion and a profession. The interest attached to Charles arises more from his eccentricities175 and brilliant military qualities, than from any extraordinary greatness of mind or heart. He was barbarous in his manners, and savage176 in his resentments177; a stranger to the pleasures of society, obstinate178, revengeful, unsympathetic, and indifferent to friendship and hatred179. But he was brave, temperate180, generous, intrepid181 in danger, and firm in misfortune.
Before his singular career can be presented, attention must be directed to the Early History of Sweden. country over which he reigned, and which will be noticed in connection with Denmark; these two countries forming a greater part of the ancient Scandinavia, from which our Teutonic ancestors migrated, the land of Odin, and Frea, and Thor, those half-fabulous182 deities183, concerning whom there are still divided opinions; some supposing that they were heroes, and others, impersonations of virtues, or elements and wonders of nature. The mythology184 of Greece does not more fully185 abound186 with gods and goddesses, than that of the old Scandinavia with rude deities,—dwarfs, and elfs, and mountain spirits. It was in these northern regions that the Normans acquired their wild enthusiasm, their supernatural daring, and their magnificent superstitions. It was from these regions that the Saxons brought their love of liberty, their spirit of enterprise, and their restless passion for the sea. The ancient Scandinavians were heroic, adventurous187, and chivalrous188 robbers, holding their women in great respect, and profoundly reverential in their notions of a supreme power. They were poor in silver, in gold, in the fruits of the earth, in luxuries, and in palaces, but rich in poetic189 sentiments and in religious ideas. Their chief vices were those of gluttony and intemperance190, and their great pleasures were those of hunting and gambling.
Fabulous as are most of their legends as to descent, still Scandinavia was probably peopled with hardy191 races before authentic192 history commences. Under different names, and at different times, they invaded the Roman empire. In the fifth century, they had settled in its desolated193 provinces—the Saxons in England, the Goths in Spain and Italy, the Vandals in Africa, the Burgundians in France, and the Lombards in Italy.
Among the most celebrated195 of these northern Teutonic nations were the pirates who invaded England and France, under the name of Northmen. They came from Denmark, and some of their chieftains won a great name in their generation, such as Harold, Canute, Sweyn, and Rollo.
Christianity was probably Introduction of Christianity. planted in Sweden about the middle of the ninth century. St. Anscar, a Westphalian monk196, was the first successful missionary197, and he was made Archbishop of Hamburg, and primate198 of the north.
The early history of the Swedes and Danes resembles that of England under the Saxon princes, and they were disgraced by the same great national vices. During the Middle Ages, no great character appeared worthy of especial notice. Some of the more powerful kings, such as Valdemar I. and II., and Canute VI., had quarrels with the Emperors of Germany, and invaded some provinces of their empire. Some of these princes were warriors199, some cruel tyrants201, none very powerful, and all characterized by the vices of their age—treachery, hypocrisy202, murder, drunkenness, and brutal revenge.
The most powerful of these kings was Christian10 I., who founded the dynasty of Oldenburgh, and who united under his sway the kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. He reigned from 1448 to 1481; and in his family the crown of Sweden remained until the revolution effected by Gustavus Vasa, in 1525, and by which revolution Sweden was made independent of Denmark.
Gustavus Vasa Gustavus Vasa. was a nobleman descended from the ancient kings of Sweden, and who, from the oppression to which his country was subjected by Christian and the Archbishop of Upsal, was forced to seek refuge amid the forests of Dalecarlia. When Stockholm was pillaged203 and her noblest citizens massacred by the cruel tyrant of the country, Gustavus headed an insurrection, defeated the king's forces, and was made king himself by the Diet. He, perceiving that the Catholic clergy were opposed to the liberties and the great interests of his country, seized their fortresses and lands, became a convert to the doctrine204 of the reformers, and introduced Lutheranism into the kingdom, which has ever since been the established religion of Sweden. He was despotic in his government, but ruled for the good of his subjects, and was distinguished for many noble qualities.
The celebrated Gustavus Adolphus was his descendant, and was more absolute and powerful than even Gustavus Vasa. But he is chiefly memorable205 as the great hero of the Thirty Years' War, and as the greatest general of his age. Under his sway, Sweden was the most powerful of the northern kingdoms.
He was succeeded by his daughter Christina, a woman of most extraordinary qualities; a woman of genius, of taste, and of culture; a woman who, at twenty-seven, became wearied of the world, and of the enjoyment206 of unlimited power, and who changed her religion, retired207 from her country, and abdicated208 her throne, that she might, unmolested, enjoy the elegant pleasures of Rome, and be solaced209 by the literature, religion, and art of that splendid capital. It was in the society of men of genius that she spent most of her time, and was the life of the most intellectual circle which then existed in Europe.
She was succeeded by her cousin, who was elected King of Sweden, by the title of Charles Gustavus X., and he was succeeded by Charles XI., the father of Charles XII.
Charles XII. was fifteen years of age when he came to the throne, in the year 1697, and found his country strong in resources, and his army the best disciplined in Europe. His territories were one third larger than those of France when ruled by Louis XIV., though not so thickly populated.
The young monarch, at first, Early Days of Charles XII. gave but few indications of the remarkable210 qualities which afterwards distinguished him. He was idle, dissipated, haughty, and luxurious. When he came to the council chamber211, he was absent and indifferent, and generally sat with both legs thrown across the table.
But his lethargy and indifference212 did not last long. Three great monarchs had conspired213 to ruin him, and dismember his kingdom. These were the Czar Peter, Frederic IV. of Denmark, and Frederic Augustus, King of Poland, and also Elector of Saxony; and their hostile armies were on the point of invading his country.
The greatness of the danger brought to light his great qualities. He vigorously prepared for war. His whole character changed. Quintus Curtius became his text-book, and Alexander his model. He spent no time in sports or magnificence. He clothed himself like a common soldier, whose hardships he resolved henceforth to share. He forswore the society and the influence of woman. He relinquished214 wine and all the pleasures of the table. Love of glory became his passion, and continued through life; and this ever afterwards made him insensible to reproach, danger, toil215, fear, hunger, and pain. Never was a more complete change effected in a man's moral character; and never was an improved moral character consecrated216 to a worse end. He was not devoted to the true interests of his country, but to a selfish, base, and vain passion for military fame.
But his conduct, at first, called forth universal admiration. His glorious and successful defence against enemies apparently217 overwhelming gave him a great military reputation, and secured for him the sympathies of Christendom. Had he died when he had repelled218 the Russian, the Danish, and the Polish armies, he would have secured as honorable an immortality219 as that of Gustavus Adolphus. But he was not permitted to die prematurely220, as was his great ancestor. He lived long enough to become intoxicated with success, to make great political blunders, and to suffer the most fatal and mortifying221 misfortunes.
The commencement of his military career was beautifully heroic. "Gentlemen," said the young monarch of eighteen to his counsellors, when he meditated desperate resistance, "I am resolved never to begin an unjust war, and never to finish a just one but with the destruction of my enemies."
In six weeks he finished, after he had begun, the Danish war having completely humbled his enemy, and succored222 his brother-in-law, the Duke of Holstein.
His conflict with Peter has been presented, when with twenty thousand men he Charles's Heroism. attacked and defeated sixty thousand Russians in their intrenchments, took one hundred and fifty pieces of cannon, and killed eighteen thousand men. The victory of Narva astonished all Europe, and was the most brilliant which had then been gained in the annals of modern warfare223.
Charles was equally successful against Frederic Augustus. He routed his Saxon troops, and then resolved to dethrone him, as King of Poland. And he succeeded so far as to induce the Polish Diet to proclaim the throne vacant. Augustus was obliged to fly, and Stanislaus Leczinski was chosen king in his stead, at the nomination224 of the Swedish conqueror225. The country was subjugated226, and Frederic Augustus became a fugitive.
But Charles was not satisfied with expelling him from Poland. He resolved to attack him also in Saxony itself. Saxony was then, next to Austria, the most powerful of the German states. Nevertheless, Saxony could not arrest the victorious career of Charles. The Saxons fled as he approached. He penetrated227 to the heart of the electorate228, and the unfortunate Frederic Augustus was obliged to sue for peace, which was only granted on the most humiliating terms; which were, that the elector should acknowledge Stanislaus as king of Poland; that he should break all his treaties with Russia, and should deliver to the King of Sweden all the men who had deserted229 from his army. The humbled elector sought a personal interview with Charles, after he had signed the conditions of peace, with the hope of securing better terms. He found Charles in his jack230 boots, with a piece of black taffeta round his neck for a cravat231, and clothed in a coarse blue coat with brass232 buttons. His conversation turned wholly on his jack boots; and this trifling233 subject was the only one on which he would deign234 to converse235 with one of the most accomplished236 monarchs of his age.
Charles had now humbled and defeated all his enemies. He should now have returned to Sweden, and have cultivated the arts of peace. But peace and civilization were far from his thoughts. The subjugation237 of all the northern powers became the dream of his life. He invaded Russia, resolved on driving Peter from his throne.
He was eminently238 successful in defensive239 war, and eminently His Misfortunes. unsuccessful in aggressive war. Providence benevolently240 but singularly comes to the aid of all his children in distress241 and despair. Men are gloriously strong in defending their rights; but weak, in all their strength, when they assail242 the rights of others. So signal is this fact, that it blazes upon all the pages of history, and is illustrated in common life as well as in the affairs of nations.
When Charles turned as an assailant of the rights of his enemies, his unfortunate reverses commenced. At the head of forty-three thousand veterans, loaded with the spoils of Poland and Saxony, he commenced his march towards Russia. He had another army in Poland of twenty thousand, and another in Finland of fifteen thousand. With these he expected to dethrone the czar.
His mistakes and infatuation have been noticed, and his final defeat at Pultowa, a village at the eastern extremity243 of the Ukraine. This battle was more decisive than that of Narva; for in the latter the career of Peter was only arrested, but in the former the strength of Charles was annihilated244. And so would have been his hopes, had he been an ordinary man. But he was a madman, and still dreamed of victory, with only eighteen hundred men to follow his fortunes into Turkey, which country he succeeded in reaching.
His conduct in Turkey was infamous245 and extraordinary. No reasonings can explain it. It was both ridiculous and provoking. At first, he employed himself in fomenting246 quarrels, and devising schemes to embark247 the sultan in his cause. Vizier after vizier was flattered and assailed248. He rejected every overture249 for his peaceable return. He lingered five years in endless intrigues and negotiations250, in order to realize the great dream of his life—the dethronement of the czar. He lived recklessly on the bounty251 of the sultan, taking no hints that even imperial hospitality might be abused and exhausted. At last, his inflexible252 obstinacy253 and dangerous intrigues so disgusted his generous host, that he was urged to return, with the offer of a suitable escort, and a large sum of money. He accepted and spent the twelve hundred purses, and still refused to return. The displeasure of the Sultan Achmet was now fairly excited. It was resolved upon by the Porte that he should be removed by force, since he would not be persuaded. But Charles resisted the troops of the sultan who were ordered to remove him. With sixty servants he desperately254 defended himself against an army of janizaries, and killed twenty of them with his own hand; and it was not until completely overwhelmed and prostrated255 that he hurled256 his sword into the air. He was now a prisoner of war, and not a guest; but still he was treated with the courtesy and dignity due to a king, and conducted in a chariot covered with gold and scarlet257 to Adrianople. From thence he was removed to Demotica, where he renewed his intrigues, and zealously258 kept his bed, under pretence of sickness, for ten months.
While he remained in captivity259, Frederic Augustus recovered the crown of Poland, King Stanislaus was taken by the Turks, and Peter continued his conquest of Ingria, Livonia, and Finland, provinces belonging to Sweden. The King of Prussia also invaded Pomerania, and Frederic IV. of Denmark claimed Bremen, Holstein, and Scania. The Swedes were divested260 of all their conquests, and one hundred and fifty thousand of them became prisoners in foreign lands.
Such were the reverses of a man who had resolved to play the part of Alexander, but who, so long as he contented261 himself with defending his country against superior forces, was successful, and won a fame so great, that his misfortunes could never reduce him to contempt.
When all was lost, he signified to the Turkish vizier his desire to return to Charles's Return to Sweden. Sweden. The vizier neglected no means to rid his master of so troublesome a person. Charles returned to his country impoverished262, but not discouraged. The charm of his name was broken. His soldiers were as brave and devoted as ever, but his resources were exhausted. He succeeded, however, in raising thirty-five thousand men, in order to continue his desperate game of conquest, not of defence. Europe beheld the extraordinary spectacle of this infatuated hero passing, in the depth of a northern winter, over the frozen hills and ice-bound rocks of Norway, with his devoted army, in order to conquer that hyperborean region. So inured263 was he to cold and fatigue, that he slept in the open air on a bed of straw, covered only with his cloak, while his soldiers dropped down dead at their posts from cold. In the month of December, 1718, he commenced the siege of Fredericshall, a place of great strength and importance, but, having exposed himself unnecessarily, was killed by a ball from the fortress99. Many, however, suppose that he was assassinated264 by his own officers who were wearied with endless war, from which they saw nothing but disaster to their exhausted country.
His death His Death. was considered as a signal for the general cessation of arms; but Sweden never recovered from the mad enterprises of Charles XII. It has never since been a first class power. The national finances were disordered, the population decimated, and the provinces dismembered. Peter the Great gained what his rival lost. We cannot but compassionate265 a nation that has the misfortune to be ruled by such an absolute and infatuated monarch as was Charles XII. He did nothing for the civilization of his subjects, or to ameliorate the evils he caused. He was, like Alaric or Attila, a scourge266 of the Almighty267, sent on earth for some mysterious purpose, to desolate194 and to destroy. But he died unlamented and unhonored. No great warrior200 in modern times has received so little sympathy from historians, since he was not exalted by any great moral qualities of affection or generosity268, and unscrupulously sacrificed both friends and enemies to gratify a selfish and a depraved passion.
References.—Voltaire's History of Russia, a very attractive book, on account of its lively style. Voltaire's Life of Charles XII., also, is equally fascinating. There are tolerable histories of both Russia and Sweden in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopedia; also in the Family Library. See, also, a History of Russia and Sweden in the Universal History. Russell's Modern Europe.
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1
prosecuting
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| 检举、告发某人( prosecute的现在分词 )； 对某人提起公诉； 继续从事（某事物）； 担任控方律师 | |
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aggrandizement
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| n.增大，强化，扩大 | |
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destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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descended
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| a.为...后裔的，出身于...的 | |
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civilized
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| a.有教养的，文雅的 | |
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civilize
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| vt.使文明，使开化 (=civilise) | |
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nominal
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| adj.名义上的；(金额、租金)微不足道的 | |
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conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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licentiousness
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| n.放肆，无法无天 | |
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heroism
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| n.大无畏精神，英勇 | |
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distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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barbarians
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| n.野蛮人( barbarian的名词复数 )；外国人；粗野的人；无教养的人 | |
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imposing
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| adj.使人难忘的，壮丽的，堂皇的，雄伟的 | |
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commissioners
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| n.专员( commissioner的名词复数 )；长官；委员；政府部门的长官 | |
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relish
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| n.滋味，享受，爱好，调味品；vt.加调味料，享受，品味；vi.有滋味 | |
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arrogant
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| adj.傲慢的，自大的 | |
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spurned
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| v.一脚踢开，拒绝接受( spurn的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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minarets
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| n.（清真寺旁由报告祈祷时刻的人使用的）光塔( minaret的名词复数 ) | |
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extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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corrupted
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| （使）败坏( corrupt的过去式和过去分词 )； （使）腐化； 引起（计算机文件等的）错误； 破坏 | |
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alleviated
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| 减轻，缓解，缓和( alleviate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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superstition
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| n.迷信，迷信行为 | |
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superstitions
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| 迷信，迷信行为( superstition的名词复数 ) | |
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vices
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| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
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piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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hordes
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| n.移动着的一大群( horde的名词复数 )；部落 | |
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subdued
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| adj. 屈服的，柔和的，减弱的 动词subdue的过去式和过去分词 | |
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knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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ascended
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| v.上升，攀登( ascend的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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exterminated
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| v.消灭，根绝( exterminate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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grandeur
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| n.伟大，崇高，宏伟，庄严，豪华 | |
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concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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enlisted
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| adj.应募入伍的v.（使）入伍， （使）参军( enlist的过去式和过去分词 )；获得（帮助或支持） | |
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brutal
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| adj.残忍的，野蛮的，不讲理的 | |
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tyrant
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| n.暴君，专制的君主，残暴的人 | |
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42
libertine
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| n.淫荡者；adj.放荡的，自由思想的 | |
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clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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44
wielded
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| 手持着使用（武器、工具等）( wield的过去式和过去分词 )； 具有； 运用（权力）； 施加（影响） | |
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45
subservient
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| adj.卑屈的，阿谀的 | |
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46
addicted
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| adj.沉溺于....的，对...上瘾的 | |
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47
enervate
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| v.使虚弱，使无力 | |
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48
attainments
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| 成就，造诣； 获得( attainment的名词复数 )； 达到； 造诣； 成就 | |
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49
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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50
assassination
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| n.暗杀；暗杀事件 | |
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51
reigned
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| vi.当政，统治（reign的过去式形式） | |
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52
supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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53
reins
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| 感情，激情； 缰( rein的名词复数 )； 控制手段； 掌管； （成人带着幼儿走路以防其走失时用的）保护带 | |
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54
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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55
arduous
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| adj.艰苦的，费力的，陡峭的 | |
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56
scotch
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| n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的 | |
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57
standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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navigate
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| v.航行，飞行；导航，领航 | |
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59
innovating
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| v.改革，创新( innovate的现在分词 )；引入（新事物、思想或方法）， | |
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partisans
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| 游击队员( partisan的名词复数 )； 党人； 党羽； 帮伙 | |
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conspirators
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| n.共谋者，阴谋家( conspirator的名词复数 ) | |
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62
incognito
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| adv.匿名地；n.隐姓埋名；adj.化装的，用假名的，隐匿姓名身份的 | |
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stipend
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| n.薪贴；奖学金；养老金 | |
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disaffected
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| adj.（政治上）不满的，叛离的 | |
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affected
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| adj.不自然的，假装的 | |
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rigor
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| n.严酷，严格，严厉 | |
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providence
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| n.深谋远虑，天道，天意；远见；节约；上帝 | |
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regiments
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| （军队的）团( regiment的名词复数 )； 大量的人或物 | |
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opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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ignominious
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| adj.可鄙的，不光彩的，耻辱的 | |
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sects
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| n.宗派，教派( sect的名词复数 ) | |
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72
marine
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| adj.海的；海生的；航海的；海事的；n.水兵 | |
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odious
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| adj.可憎的，讨厌的 | |
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monasteries
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| 修道院( monastery的名词复数 ) | |
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laity
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| n.俗人；门外汉 | |
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humiliated
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| 感到羞愧的 | |
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mitigated
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| v.减轻，缓和( mitigate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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humbled
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| adj. 卑下的，谦逊的，粗陋的 vt. 使 ... 卑下，贬低 | |
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benefactor
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| n. 恩人，行善的人，捐助人 | |
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81
pretence
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| n.假装，作假；借口，口实；虚伪；虚饰 | |
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restitution
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| n.赔偿；恢复原状 | |
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83
artillery
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| n.(军)火炮，大炮；炮兵(部队) | |
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intoxicated
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| 喝醉的，极其兴奋的 | |
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presumptuous
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| adj.胆大妄为的，放肆的，冒昧的，冒失的 | |
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braced
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| adj.拉牢的v.支住( brace的过去式和过去分词 )；撑牢；使自己站稳；振作起来 | |
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unlimited
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| adj.无限的，不受控制的，无条件的 | |
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presumption
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| n.推测，可能性，冒昧，放肆，[法律]推定 | |
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disastrous
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| adj.灾难性的，造成灾害的；极坏的，很糟的 | |
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adversary
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| adj.敌手，对手 | |
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victorious
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| adj.胜利的，得胜的 | |
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martyr
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| n.烈士，殉难者；vt.杀害，折磨，牺牲 | |
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exalted
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| adj.(地位等)高的，崇高的；尊贵的，高尚的 | |
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prosecuted
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| a.被起诉的 | |
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ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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linen
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| n.亚麻布，亚麻线，亚麻制品；adj.亚麻布制的，亚麻的 | |
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skilful
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| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
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cannon
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| n.大炮，火炮；飞机上的机关炮 | |
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99
fortress
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| n.堡垒，防御工事 | |
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100
fortresses
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| 堡垒，要塞( fortress的名词复数 ) | |
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101
perseverance
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| n.坚持不懈，不屈不挠 | |
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102
sergeant
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| n.警官，中士 | |
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103
beheld
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| v.看，注视( behold的过去式和过去分词 )；瞧；看呀；（叙述中用于引出某人意外的出现）哎哟 | |
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104
privately
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| adv.以私人的身份，悄悄地，私下地 | |
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105
monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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106
marshes
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| n.沼泽，湿地( marsh的名词复数 ) | |
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107
metropolis
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| n.首府；大城市 | |
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108
labors
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| v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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109
dominions
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| 统治权( dominion的名词复数 )； 领土； 疆土； 版图 | |
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110
vessels
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| n.血管( vessel的名词复数 )；船；容器；（具有特殊品质或接受特殊品质的）人 | |
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111
bombastic
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| adj.夸夸其谈的，言过其实的 | |
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112
nought
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| n.／adj.无，零 | |
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113
elevation
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| n.高度；海拔；高地；上升；提高 | |
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114
mortification
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| n.耻辱，屈辱 | |
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115
averse
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| adj.厌恶的；反对的，不乐意的 | |
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116
haughty
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| adj.傲慢的，高傲的 | |
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117
alienated
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| adj.感到孤独的，不合群的v.使疏远( alienate的过去式和过去分词 )；使不友好；转让；让渡（财产等） | |
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118
veneration
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| n.尊敬，崇拜 | |
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119
illustrated
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| adj. 有插图的，列举的 动词illustrate的过去式和过去分词 | |
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120
embroiling
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| v.使（自己或他人）卷入纠纷( embroil的现在分词 ) | |
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121
perseveringly
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| 坚定地 | |
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122
luxurious
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| adj.精美而昂贵的；豪华的 | |
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123
stratagem
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| n.诡计，计谋 | |
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124
prey
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| n.被掠食者，牺牲者，掠食；v.捕食，掠夺，折磨 | |
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125
forage
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| n.(牛马的)饲料，粮草；v.搜寻，翻寻 | |
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126
exhausted
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|
| adj.极其疲惫的，精疲力尽的 | |
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127
fatigue
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| n.疲劳，劳累 | |
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128
drooped
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| 弯曲或下垂，发蔫( droop的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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129
famished
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| adj.饥饿的 | |
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130
bloodiest
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| adj.血污的( bloody的最高级 )；流血的；屠杀的；残忍的 | |
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131
valor
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| n.勇气，英勇 | |
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132
decided
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| adj.决定了的，坚决的；明显的，明确的 | |
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133
ordained
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| v.任命（某人）为牧师( ordain的过去式和过去分词 )；授予（某人）圣职；（上帝、法律等）命令；判定 | |
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134
triumphant
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| adj.胜利的，成功的；狂欢的，喜悦的 | |
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135
unduly
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| adv.过度地，不适当地 | |
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136
aggrandized
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|
| v.扩大某人的权力( aggrandize的过去式和过去分词 )；提高某人的地位；夸大；吹捧 | |
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137
humility
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| n.谦逊，谦恭 | |
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138
intrigues
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| n.密谋策划( intrigue的名词复数 )；神秘气氛；引人入胜的复杂情节v.搞阴谋诡计( intrigue的第三人称单数 )；激起…的好奇心 | |
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139
hereditary
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| adj.遗传的，遗传性的，可继承的，世袭的 | |
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140
jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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141
inevitable
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| adj.不可避免的，必然发生的 | |
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142
implore
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| vt.乞求，恳求，哀求 | |
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143
clemency
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| n.温和，仁慈，宽厚 | |
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144
fugitive
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| adj.逃亡的，易逝的；n.逃犯，逃亡者 | |
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145
entangled
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| adj.卷入的；陷入的；被缠住的；缠在一起的v.使某人（某物/自己）缠绕，纠缠于（某物中），使某人（自己）陷入（困难或复杂的环境中）( entangle的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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146
devoted
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| adj.忠诚的，忠实的，热心的，献身于...的 | |
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147
embellished
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| v.美化( embellish的过去式和过去分词 )；装饰；修饰；润色 | |
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148
arsenals
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| n.兵工厂，军火库( arsenal的名词复数 )；任何事物的集成 | |
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149
gulf
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| n.海湾；深渊，鸿沟；分歧，隔阂 | |
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150
aspired
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| v.渴望，追求( aspire的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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151
meditated
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| 深思，沉思，冥想( meditate的过去式和过去分词 )； 内心策划，考虑 | |
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152
enthusiast
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| n.热心人，热衷者 | |
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153
maturity
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| n.成熟；完成；(支票、债券等)到期 | |
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154
disdained
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| 鄙视( disdain的过去式和过去分词 )； 不屑于做，不愿意做 | |
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155
pompous
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|
| adj.傲慢的，自大的；夸大的；豪华的 | |
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156
simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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157
zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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158
tapestries
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| n.挂毯( tapestry的名词复数 )；绣帷，织锦v.用挂毯（或绣帷）装饰( tapestry的第三人称单数 ) | |
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159
condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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160
gambling
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| n.赌博；投机 | |
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161
fealty
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| n.忠贞，忠节 | |
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162
inauguration
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| n.开幕、就职典礼 | |
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163
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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164
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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165
judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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166
incessantly
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| ad.不停地 | |
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167
vigilant
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| adj.警觉的，警戒的，警惕的 | |
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168
impeached
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| v.控告（某人）犯罪( impeach的过去式和过去分词 )；弹劾；对（某事物）怀疑；提出异议 | |
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169
portraiture
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| n.肖像画法 | |
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170
disorders
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| n.混乱( disorder的名词复数 )；凌乱；骚乱；（身心、机能）失调 | |
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171
virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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172
bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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173
monarchs
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| 君主，帝王( monarch的名词复数 ) | |
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174
reigning
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| adj.统治的，起支配作用的 | |
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175
eccentricities
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| n.古怪行为( eccentricity的名词复数 )；反常；怪癖 | |
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176
savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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177
resentments
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| （因受虐待而）愤恨，不满，怨恨( resentment的名词复数 ) | |
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178
obstinate
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| adj.顽固的，倔强的，不易屈服的，较难治愈的 | |
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179
hatred
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| n.憎恶，憎恨，仇恨 | |
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180
temperate
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| adj.温和的，温带的，自我克制的，不过分的 | |
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181
intrepid
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| adj.无畏的，刚毅的 | |
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182
fabulous
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| adj.极好的；极为巨大的；寓言中的，传说中的 | |
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183
deities
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| n.神，女神( deity的名词复数 )；神祗；神灵；神明 | |
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184
mythology
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| n.神话，神话学，神话集 | |
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185
fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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186
abound
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| vi.大量存在；(in，with)充满，富于 | |
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187
adventurous
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| adj.爱冒险的；惊心动魄的，惊险的，刺激的 | |
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188
chivalrous
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| adj.武士精神的；对女人彬彬有礼的 | |
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189
poetic
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| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
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190
intemperance
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| n.放纵 | |
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191
hardy
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| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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192
authentic
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| a.真的，真正的；可靠的，可信的，有根据的 | |
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193
desolated
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| adj.荒凉的，荒废的 | |
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194
desolate
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| adj.荒凉的，荒芜的；孤独的，凄凉的；v.使荒芜，使孤寂 | |
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195
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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196
monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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197
missionary
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| adj.教会的，传教(士)的；n.传教士 | |
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198
primate
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| n.灵长类（目）动物，首席主教；adj.首要的 | |
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199
warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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200
warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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201
tyrants
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| 专制统治者( tyrant的名词复数 )； 暴君似的人； （古希腊的）僭主； 严酷的事物 | |
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202
hypocrisy
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| n.伪善，虚伪 | |
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203
pillaged
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| v.抢劫，掠夺( pillage的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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204
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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205
memorable
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| adj.值得回忆的，难忘的，特别的，显著的 | |
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206
enjoyment
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| n.乐趣；享有；享用 | |
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207
retired
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| adj.隐退的，退休的，退役的 | |
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208
abdicated
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| 放弃（职责、权力等）( abdicate的过去式和过去分词 )； 退位，逊位 | |
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209
solaced
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| v.安慰，慰藉( solace的过去分词 ) | |
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210
remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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211
chamber
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| n.房间，寝室；会议厅；议院；会所 | |
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212
indifference
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| n.不感兴趣，不关心，冷淡，不在乎 | |
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213
conspired
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| 密谋( conspire的过去式和过去分词 )； 搞阴谋； （事件等）巧合； 共同导致 | |
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214
relinquished
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| 交出，让给( relinquish的过去式和过去分词 )； 放弃 | |
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215
toil
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| vi.辛劳工作，艰难地行动；n.苦工，难事 | |
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216
consecrated
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| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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217
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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218
repelled
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| v.击退( repel的过去式和过去分词 )；使厌恶；排斥；推开 | |
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219
immortality
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| n.不死，不朽 | |
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220
prematurely
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| adv.过早地，贸然地 | |
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221
mortifying
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| adj.抑制的，苦修的v.使受辱( mortify的现在分词 )；伤害（人的感情）；克制；抑制（肉体、情感等） | |
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222
succored
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| v.给予帮助( succor的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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223
warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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224
nomination
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| n.提名，任命，提名权 | |
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conqueror
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| n.征服者，胜利者 | |
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subjugated
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| v.征服，降伏( subjugate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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penetrated
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| adj. 击穿的，鞭辟入里的 动词penetrate的过去式和过去分词形式 | |
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228
electorate
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| n.全体选民；选区 | |
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deserted
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| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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jack
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| n.插座，千斤顶，男人；v.抬起，提醒，扛举；n.（Jake）杰克 | |
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cravat
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| n.领巾，领结；v.使穿有领结的服装，使结领结 | |
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brass
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| n.黄铜；黄铜器，铜管乐器 | |
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trifling
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| adj.微不足道的；没什么价值的 | |
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deign
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| v. 屈尊, 惠允 ( 做某事) | |
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converse
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| vi.谈话，谈天，闲聊；adv.相反的，相反 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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subjugation
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| n.镇压，平息，征服 | |
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eminently
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| adv.突出地；显著地；不寻常地 | |
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defensive
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| adj.防御的；防卫的；防守的 | |
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benevolently
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| adv.仁慈地，行善地 | |
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241
distress
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| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
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assail
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| v.猛烈攻击，抨击，痛斥 | |
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243
extremity
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| n.末端，尽头；尽力；终极；极度 | |
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annihilated
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| v.（彻底）消灭( annihilate的过去式和过去分词 )；使无效；废止；彻底击溃 | |
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infamous
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| adj.声名狼藉的，臭名昭著的，邪恶的 | |
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fomenting
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| v.激起，煽动（麻烦等）( foment的现在分词 ) | |
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embark
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| vi.乘船，着手，从事，上飞机 | |
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assailed
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| v.攻击( assail的过去式和过去分词 )；困扰；质问；毅然应对 | |
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overture
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| n.前奏曲、序曲，提议，提案，初步交涉 | |
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negotiations
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| 协商( negotiation的名词复数 )； 谈判； 完成（难事）； 通过 | |
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bounty
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| n.慷慨的赠予物，奖金；慷慨，大方；施与 | |
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inflexible
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| adj.不可改变的，不受影响的，不屈服的 | |
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obstinacy
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| n.顽固；（病痛等）难治 | |
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desperately
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| adv.极度渴望地，绝望地，孤注一掷地 | |
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prostrated
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| v.使俯伏，使拜倒( prostrate的过去式和过去分词 )；（指疾病、天气等）使某人无能为力 | |
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hurled
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| v.猛投，用力掷( hurl的过去式和过去分词 )；大声叫骂 | |
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scarlet
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| n.深红色，绯红色，红衣；adj.绯红色的 | |
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zealously
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| adv.热心地；热情地；积极地；狂热地 | |
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captivity
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| n.囚禁；被俘；束缚 | |
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260
divested
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| v.剥夺( divest的过去式和过去分词 )；脱去（衣服）；2。从…取去…；1。（给某人）脱衣服 | |
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contented
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| adj.满意的，安心的，知足的 | |
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impoverished
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| adj.穷困的，无力的，用尽了的v.使（某人）贫穷( impoverish的过去式和过去分词 )；使（某物）贫瘠或恶化 | |
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inured
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| adj.坚强的，习惯的 | |
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264
assassinated
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| v.暗杀( assassinate的过去式和过去分词 )；中伤；诋毁；破坏 | |
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265
compassionate
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| adj.有同情心的，表示同情的 | |
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266
scourge
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| n.灾难，祸害；v.蹂躏 | |
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267
almighty
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| adj.全能的，万能的；很大的，很强的 | |
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268
generosity
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| n.大度，慷慨，慷慨的行为 | |
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