How, it may be exclaimed, can such a question be asked? Has it ever been pretended, is it possible to maintain, that scarcity can be the basis of a man's happiness?
Yes; this has been maintained, this is daily maintained; and I do not hesitate to say that the scarcity theory is by far the most popular of the day. It furnishes the subject of discussions, in conversations, journals, books, courts of justice; and extraordinary as it may appear, it is certain that political economy will have fulfilled its task and its practical mission, when it shall have rendered common and irrefutable the simple proposition that "in abundance consist man's riches."
Do we not hear it said every day, "Foreign nations are inundating2 us with their productions"? Then we fear abundance.
Has not Mr. de Saint Cricq said, "Production is superabundant"? Then he fears abundance.
Do we not see workmen destroying and breaking machinery3? They are frightened by the excess of production; in other words, they fear abundance.
Has not Mr. Bugeaud said, "Let bread be dear and the agriculturist will be rich"? Now bread can only be dear because it is scarce. Then Mr. Bugeaud lauded4 scarcity.
Has not Mr. d'Argout produced the fruitfulness of the sugar culture as an argument against it? Has he not said, "The beet5 cannot have a permanent and extended cultivation6, because a few acres given up to it in each department, would furnish sufficient for the consumption of all France"? Then, in his opinion, good consists in sterility7 and scarcity, evil in fertility and abundance.
"La Presse," "Le Commerce," and the majority of our journals, are, every day, publishing articles whose aim is to prove to the chambers8 and to government that a wise policy should seek to raise prices by tariffs9; and do we not daily see these powers obeying these injunctions of the press? Now, tariffs can only raise prices by diminishing the quantity of goods offered for sale. Then, here we see newspapers, the legislature, the ministry10, all guided by the scarcity theory, and I was correct in my statement that this theory is by far the most popular.
How then has it happened, that in the eyes at once of laborers13, editors and statesmen, abundance should appear alarming, and scarcity advantageous14? It is my intention to endeavor to show the origin of this delusion15.
A man becomes rich, in proportion to the profitableness of his labor12; that is to say, in proportion as he sells his productions at a high price. The price of his productions is high in proportion to their scarcity. It is plain then, that, as far as regards him at least, scarcity enriches him. Applying successively this mode of reasoning to each class of laborers individually, the scarcity theory is deduced from it. To put this theory into practice, and in order to favor each class of labor, an artificial scarcity is forced in every kind of production, by prohibition16, restriction17, suppression of machinery, and other analogous18 measures.
In the same manner it is observed that when an article is abundant it brings a small price. The gains of the producer are, of course, less. If this is the case with all produce, all producers are then poor. Abundance then ruins society. And as any strong conviction will always seek to force itself into practice, we see, in many countries, the laws aiming to prevent abundance.
This sophism19, stated in a general form, would produce but a slight impression. But when applied20 to any particular order of facts, to any particular article of industry, to any one class of labor, it is extremely specious21, because it is a syllogism22 which is not false, but incomplete. And what is true in a syllogism always necessarily presents itself to the mind, while the incomplete, which is a negative quality, an unknown value, is easily forgotten in the calculation.
Man produces in order to consume. He is at once producer and consumer. The argument given above, considers him only under the first point of view. Let us look at him in the second character and the conclusion will be different. We may say,
The consumer is rich in proportion as he buys at a low price. He buys at a low price in proportion to the abundance of the article in demand; abundance then enriches him. This reasoning extended to all consumers must lead to the theory of abundance!
It is the imperfectly understood notion of exchange of produce which leads to these fallacies. If we consult our individual interest, we perceive immediately that it is double. As sellers we are interested in high prices, consequently in scarcity. As buyers our advantage is in cheapness, or what is the same thing, abundance. It is impossible then to found a proper system of reasoning upon either the one or the other of these separate interests before determining which of the two coincides and identifies itself with the general and permanent interests of mankind.
If man were a solitary24 animal, working exclusively for himself, consuming the fruit of his own personal labor; if, in a word, he did not exchange his produce, the theory of scarcity could never have introduced itself into the world. It would be too strikingly evident, that abundance, whencesoever derived25, is advantageous to him, whether this abundance might be the result of his own labor, of ingenious tools, or of powerful machinery; whether due to the fertility of the soil, to the liberality of nature, or to an inundation26 of foreign goods, such as the sea bringing from distant regions might cast upon his shores. Never would the solitary man have dreamed, in order to encourage his own labor, of destroying his instruments for facilitating his work, of neutralizing27 the fertility of the soil, or of casting back into the sea the produce of its bounty28. He would understand that his labor was a means not an end, and that it would be absurd to reject the object, in order to encourage the means. He would understand that if he has required two hours per day to supply his necessities, any thing which spares him an hour of this labor, leaving the result the same, gives him this hour to dispose of as he pleases in adding to his comforts. In a word, he would understand that every step in the saving of labor, is a step in the improvement of his condition. But traffic clouds our vision in the contemplation of this simple truth. In a state of society with the division of labor to which it leads, the production and consumption of an article no longer belong to the same individual. Each now looks upon his labor not as a means, but as an end. The exchange of produce creates with regard to each object two separate interests, that of the producer and that of the consumer; and these two interests are always directly opposed to each other.
It is essential to analyze29 and study the nature of each. Let us then suppose a producer of whatever kind; what is his immediate23 interest? It consists in two things: 1st, that the smallest possible number of individuals should devote themselves to the business which he follows; and 2dly, that the greatest possible number should seek the articles of his produce. In the more succinct30 terms of Political Economy, the supply should be small, the demand large; or yet in other words: limited competition, unlimited31 consumption.
What on the other side is the immediate interest of the consumer? That the supply should be large, the demand small.
As these two interests are immediately opposed to each other, it follows that if one coincides with the general interest of society the other must be adverse32 to it.
Which then, if either, should legislation favor as contributing most to the good of the community?
To determine this question, it suffices to inquire in which the secret desires of the majority of men would be accomplished33.
Inasmuch as we are producers, it must be confessed that we have each of us anti-social desires. Are we vine-growers? It would not distress34 us were the frost to nip all the vines in the world except our own: this is the scarcity theory. Are we iron-workers? We would desire (whatever might be the public need) that the market should offer no iron but our own; and precisely35 for the reason that this need, painfully felt and imperfectly supplied, causes us to receive a high price for our iron: again here is the theory of scarcity. Are we agriculturists? We say with Mr. Bugeaud, let bread be dear, that is to say scarce, and our business goes well: again the theory of scarcity.
Are we physicians? We cannot but see that certain physical ameliorations, such as the improved climate of the country, the development of certain moral virtues36, the progress of knowledge pushed to the extent of enabling each individual to take care of his own health, the discovery of certain simple remedies easily applied, would be so many fatal blows to our profession. As physicians, then, our secret desires are anti-social. I must not be understood to imply that physicians allow themselves to form such desires. I am happy to believe that they would hail with joy a universal panacea37. But in such a sentiment it is the man, the Christian38, who manifests himself, and who by a praiseworthy abnegation of self, takes that point of view of the question, which belongs to the consumer. As a physician exercising his profession, and gaining from this profession his standing39 in society, his comforts, even the means of existence of his family, it is impossible but that his desires, or if you please so to word it, his interests, should be anti-social.
Are we manufacturers of cotton goods? We desire to sell them at the price most advantageous to ourselves. We would willingly consent to the suppression of all rival manufactories. And if we dare not publicly express this desire, or pursue the complete realization40 of it with some success, we do so, at least to a certain extent, by indirect means; as for example, the exclusion41 of foreign goods, in order to diminish the quantity offered, and to produce thus by forcible means, and for our own profits, a scarcity of clothing.
We might thus pass in review every business and every profession, and should always find that the producers, in their character of producers, have invariably anti-social interests. "The shop-keeper (says Montaigne) succeeds in his business through the extravagance of youth; the laborer11 by the high price of grain; the architect by the decay of houses; officers of justice by lawsuits42 and quarrels. The standing and occupation even of ministers of religion are drawn43 from our death and our vices44. No physician takes pleasure in the health even of his friends; no soldier in the peace of his country; and so on with all."
If then the secret desires of each producer were realized, the world would rapidly retrograde towards barbarism. The sail would proscribe45 steam; the oar46 would proscribe the sail, only in its turn to give way to wagons47, the wagon48 to the mule49, and the mule to the foot-peddler. Wool would exclude cotton; cotton would exclude wool; and thus on, until the scarcity and want of every thing would cause man himself to disappear from the face of the globe.
If we now go on to consider the immediate interest of the consumer, we shall find it in perfect harmony with the public interest, and with the well-being50 of humanity. When the buyer presents himself in the market, he desires to find it abundantly furnished. He sees with pleasure propitious51 seasons for harvesting; wonderful inventions putting within his reach the largest possible quantity of produce; time and labor saved; distances effaced52; the spirit of peace and justice diminishing the weight of taxes; every barrier to improvement cast down; and in all this his interest runs parallel with an enlightened public interest. He may push his secret desires to an absurd and chimerical53 height, but never can they cease to be humanizing in their tendency. He may desire that food and clothing, house and hearth54, instruction and morality, security and peace, strength and health, should come to us without limit and without labor or effort on our part, as the water of the stream, the air which we breathe, and the sunbeams in which we bask55, but never could the realization of his most extravagant56 wishes run counter to the good of society.
It may be said, perhaps, that were these desires granted, the labor of the producer constantly checked would end by being entirely57 arrested for want of support. But why? Because in this extreme supposition every imaginable need and desire would be completely satisfied. Man, like the All-powerful, would create by the single act of his will. How in such an hypothesis could laborious58 production be regretted?
Imagine a legislative59 assembly composed of producers, of whom each member should cause to pass into a law his secret desire as a producer; the code which would emanate60 from such an assembly could be nothing but systematized monopoly; the scarcity theory put into practice.
In the same manner, an assembly in which each member should consult only his immediate interest of consumer would aim at the systematizing of free trade; the suppression of every restrictive measure; the destruction of artificial barriers; in a word, would realize the theory of abundance.
It follows then,
That to consult exclusively the immediate interest of the producer, is to consult an anti-social interest.
To take exclusively for basis the interest of the consumer, is to take for basis the general interest.
Let me be permitted to insist once more upon this point of view, though at the risk of repetition.
The former wishes the article offered to be scarce, supply small, and at a high price.
The latter wishes it abundant, supply large, and at a low price.
The laws, which should at least remain neutral, take part for the seller against the buyer; for the producer against the consumer; for high against low prices; for scarcity against abundance. They act, if not intentionally63 at least logically, upon the principle that a nation is rich in proportion as it is in want of every thing.
For, say they, it is necessary to favor the producer by securing him a profitable disposal of his goods. To effect this, their price must be raised; to raise the price the supply must be diminished; and to diminish the supply is to create scarcity.
Let us suppose that at this moment, with these laws in full action, a complete inventory64 should be made, not by value, but by weight, measure and quantity, of all articles now in France calculated to supply the necessities and pleasures of its inhabitants; as grain, meat, woollen and cotton goods, fuel, etc.
Let us suppose again that to-morrow every barrier to the introduction of foreign goods should be removed.
Then, to judge of the effect of such a reform, let a new inventory be made three months hence.
Is it not certain that at the time of the second inventory, the quantity of grain, cattle, goods, iron, coal, sugar, etc., will be greater than at the first?
So true is this, that the sole object of our protective tariffs is to prevent such articles from reaching us, to diminish the supply, to prevent low prices, or which is the same thing, the abundance of goods.
Now I ask, are the people under the action of these laws better fed because there is less bread, less meat, and less sugar in the country? Are they better dressed because there are fewer goods? Better warmed because there is less coal? Or do they prosper65 better in their labor because iron, copper66, tools and machinery are scarce?
But, it is answered, if we are inundated67 with foreign goods and produce, our coin will leave the country.
Well, and what matters that? Man is not fed with coin. He does not dress in gold, nor warm himself with silver. What difference does it make whether there be more or less coin in the country, provided there be more bread in the cupboard, more meat in the larder68, more clothing in the press, and more wood in the cellar?
Either you allow that you produce scarcity, or you do not allow it.
If you allow it, you confess at once that your end is to injure the people as much as possible. If you do not allow it, then you deny your power to diminish the supply, to raise the price, and consequently you deny having favored the producer.
You are either injurious or inefficient70. You can never be useful.
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1
scarcity
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| n.缺乏，不足，萧条 | |
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inundating
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| v.淹没( inundate的现在分词 )；（洪水般地）涌来；充满；给予或交予（太多事物）使难以应付 | |
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machinery
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| n.(总称)机械，机器；机构 | |
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lauded
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| v.称赞，赞美( laud的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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beet
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| n.甜菜；甜菜根 | |
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cultivation
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| n.耕作，培养，栽培（法），养成 | |
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sterility
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| n.不生育，不结果，贫瘠，消毒，无菌 | |
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chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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tariffs
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| 关税制度； 关税( tariff的名词复数 )； 关税表； （旅馆或饭店等的）收费表； 量刑标准 | |
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ministry
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| n.(政府的)部；牧师 | |
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laborer
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| n.劳动者，劳工 | |
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labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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laborers
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| n.体力劳动者，工人( laborer的名词复数 )；（熟练工人的）辅助工 | |
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advantageous
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| adj.有利的；有帮助的 | |
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delusion
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| n.谬见，欺骗，幻觉，迷惑 | |
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prohibition
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| n.禁止；禁令，禁律 | |
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restriction
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| n.限制，约束 | |
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analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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sophism
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| n.诡辩 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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specious
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| adj.似是而非的；adv.似是而非地 | |
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syllogism
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| n.演绎法，三段论法 | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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inundation
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| n.the act or fact of overflowing | |
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neutralizing
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| v.使失效( neutralize的现在分词 )；抵消；中和；使（一个国家）中立化 | |
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bounty
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| n.慷慨的赠予物，奖金；慷慨，大方；施与 | |
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analyze
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| vt.分析，解析 (=analyse) | |
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succinct
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| adj.简明的，简洁的 | |
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unlimited
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| adj.无限的，不受控制的，无条件的 | |
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adverse
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| adj.不利的；有害的；敌对的，不友好的 | |
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accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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distress
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| n.苦恼，痛苦，不舒适；不幸；vt.使悲痛 | |
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precisely
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| adv.恰好，正好，精确地，细致地 | |
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virtues
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| 美德( virtue的名词复数 )； 德行； 优点； 长处 | |
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panacea
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| n.万灵药；治百病的灵药 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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realization
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| n.实现；认识到，深刻了解 | |
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41
exclusion
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| n.拒绝，排除，排斥，远足，远途旅行 | |
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lawsuits
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| n.诉讼( lawsuit的名词复数 ) | |
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drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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vices
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| 缺陷( vice的名词复数 )； 恶习； 不道德行为； 台钳 | |
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proscribe
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| v.禁止；排斥；放逐，充军；剥夺公权 | |
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oar
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| n.桨，橹，划手；v.划行 | |
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47
wagons
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| n.四轮的运货马车( wagon的名词复数 )；铁路货车；小手推车 | |
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wagon
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| n.四轮马车，手推车，面包车；无盖运货列车 | |
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49
mule
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| n.骡子，杂种，执拗的人 | |
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50
well-being
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| n.安康，安乐，幸福 | |
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51
propitious
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| adj.吉利的；顺利的 | |
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52
effaced
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| v.擦掉( efface的过去式和过去分词 )；抹去；超越；使黯然失色 | |
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53
chimerical
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| adj.荒诞不经的，梦幻的 | |
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hearth
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| n.壁炉炉床，壁炉地面 | |
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bask
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| vt.取暖，晒太阳，沐浴于 | |
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extravagant
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| adj.奢侈的；过分的；(言行等)放肆的 | |
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entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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laborious
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| adj.吃力的，努力的，不流畅 | |
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legislative
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| n.立法机构，立法权；adj.立法的，有立法权的 | |
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emanate
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| v.发自，来自，出自 | |
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radical
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| n.激进份子，原子团，根号；adj.根本的，激进的，彻底的 | |
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antagonism
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| n.对抗，敌对，对立 | |
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intentionally
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| ad.故意地，有意地 | |
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inventory
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| n.详细目录，存货清单 | |
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prosper
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| v.成功，兴隆，昌盛；使成功，使昌隆，繁荣 | |
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copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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inundated
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| v.淹没( inundate的过去式和过去分词 )；（洪水般地）涌来；充满；给予或交予（太多事物）使难以应付 | |
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larder
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| n.食物贮藏室，食品橱 | |
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dilemma
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| n.困境，进退两难的局面 | |
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inefficient
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| adj.效率低的，无效的 | |
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