The beginnings of sculpture in Spain take us back to the middle years of the fifth century B.C. It is to this date, about 440 B.C., that the beautiful sculptured bust1 of the Lady of Elche belongs. The figure was discovered in August 1897 at Elche, one of the most ancient and interesting of the old towns of Spain. Situated2 in the beautiful ravine of the Vinalapó, twelve miles distant from Alicante, Elche still retains almost unaltered its Arab character. It was the Roman Ilice, and probably the Iberian Helike, where Hamilcar was defeated. The town is especially fortunate in having possessed3 this treasure, which speaks so splendidly of the power and strength of Spain’s ancient art. This is the earliest and by far the most important of the antique statues of Spain—the one supreme4 example of primitive5 Iberian work. But alas6! the Lady of Elche has been{15} taken out of Spain and is now in the Louvre at Paris.
It is a stone bust of a woman of life size. The lips and part of the hair still retain traces of red colour. The expressive7 face, delicate and yet strong, has suffered little. She wears enormous ear pendants of Oriental style, and two great wheels frame her head. Around her neck hangs a Greco-Ph?nician necklace, such as women wore from the time of the Peloponnesian War. It is this that fixes the date of the statue. It would seem to be the work of a native artist who was under the combined influences of Greece and Ph?nicia. Only a Spanish artist could have thus immortalised the character of Spanish womanhood. Indeed it is this special Spanish quality which is the most interesting feature of this remarkable8 work. Mr. Havelock Ellis has pointed9 out the resemblance which the Lady of Elche bears to Velazquez’ “Woman with the Fan.” And this is no fanciful idea. There is a strange likeness10 in all Spanish art—a likeness which is at once its strength and also its weakness, and which may be traced to the strong and persistent11 character of this race that has altered so little in the passing of the centuries. It is this marked individuality that speaks even more strongly in Spanish sculpture than in Spanish{16} painting. The Lady of Elche stands for all that is Spain.
Apart from the Lady of Elche no important single example of Iberian art remains12 to us. Statues have been found, such as the Cirro de los Santos and the Llano de la Consolacion, which certainly were painted. M. Marcel Dieulafoy believes that this was also the case with the statue of a bull facing a bearded man, in the Museum of Valencia; that of the griffin and the anthropoid13 sarcophagus at Cadiz; and the interesting heads of bulls in bronze, found at Costig, Majorca, which bear some resemblance to the Susian bulls and Grecian bronzes, and, like them, have some parts gilded14. Then it will not do to neglect the strange stone figures of bulls scattered15 in different places in Spain and Portugal, one fine example being in the square of Avila. Little is known as to the origin and purpose of these remarkable examples of Iberian art, but some still bear traces of vermilion colouring. The existence of these works, as well as many other notable fragments in different churches in Spain, prove at least that the native Iberian carver had attained16 a skill certainly remarkable at this early date.
But then followed, as is so often the case, a long night, of which nothing of special interest is{17} known. The Roman sculptures, which follow chronologically17 those of the Iberian epoch18, are not remarkable in any way. They do not reveal any special character.
There are few sculptures left which can with any certainty be referred to the Visigothic period. The fragments discovered at San Romano de Hornija, at Toledo, and at Seville, though they bear vestiges19 of Visigothic workmanship, belong in reality to the Christian20 period. It would seem that the Visigoths for the most part limited their work to restoring the Roman buildings and adapting them for Christian uses. The ornamentation which they often added is usually of Byzantine origin, an influence reaching Spain through France. Yet the sumptuous22 character of their art is shown in the only important works of this period which remain: the splendid votive crowns of Kings Recceswinth and Swenthila, found in 1858 at Guarraza, near Toledo (Plate 1), and now in the Royal Armoury, Madrid, and in the Musée de Cluny in Paris. But these crowns are not Spanish works. Indeed many centuries separate the genuinely Spanish carvings23 of the Iberian artists from any work that again manifests the characters which belong to the native art.
It has been said by Professor Carl Justi, in a{18} short but excellent account of Spanish sculpture which is given in Baedeker’s “Guide to Spain,” that “the existence of works in stone can hardly be proved before the eleventh century.” This is a mistake. The early Christian carvings are in stone; they must be sought in Asturias, the provinces which first shook off the Moorish24 rule.
In 791 Alfonso II., known as the Chaste25, made Oviedo the capital of the then struggling kingdom of Asturias. He was a ruler of ability and culture, and spent all his time when he was not fighting in building both churches and palaces. On his return from his campaigns he consecrated26 the spoils taken from the enemy to embellish27 his growing city.
The most important of the buildings of Alfonso is the Cámara Santa of the cathedral, once the Capilla San Miguel, which was part of the original church of Alfonso, and was built in the eighth century by his architect Favila. The room itself is small, without ornament21, roofed with low barrel vaulting28, and lighted with one small window. But here are guarded the relics29 in the Byzantine-Latin style, which are among the most interesting examples that remain to us of the work of the period. The Cruz de los Angeles, a work of the eighth century and the gift of Alfonso II., and the{19} Cruz de la Victoria, supposed to have belonged to Pelayo, both resemble very closely the crowns of Guarraza; like them, they are not typically Spanish work. That of the Angeles is of filigree31 work of exquisite32 delicacy33, and enriched in the centre with rare encrusted rubies34 and other precious stones; while that of the Victory is made of wood, but Alfonso III. had it overlaid with gold and ornamented35 with jewels. A third relic30, the cash-box of St. Eulalia, has its chief interest in the inscription36 in Arabic and Cufic characters which surrounds the cover. A special historical interest belongs to the relic known as the Arca de los Santos. The cover, on which is engraved37 the figures of the Apostles, and the Latin inscriptions38 belong, by the character of the vestments, which are those described by St. Isidore, and by the letters used, to the sixth or seventh centuries; while the Saviour39 and angels on the box itself, the inscriptions in Cufic lettering, as well as the general style of reliquary, have the characters which belong to the Spanish works of the eleventh and early years of the twelfth centuries. The explanation, of course, is that the casket was restored and its character altered at a later date, and probably in the reign40 of Alfonso VI. This mingling41 of different styles and periods in one{20} work of art meets us continually in Spain. It is due in large measure to the custom by which the Spaniards used and borrowed the arts of the Moors42, even for long after they had conquered them.
There are a few works in the Madrid Arch?ological Museum which are in the Latin-Byzantine style, and should be compared with the treasure of the Cámara Santa, and to the same period belong other relics now in different churches in the Peninsula.
In the reign of Alfonso the Chaste were built the churches of San Tirso and San Tulliano or Julian, which, though unfortunately much restored, may still be visited in Oviedo. Belonging to an even earlier date was the Church of Santa Cruz de Canjas, which was built by the royal architect Favila, in Alfonso’s reign, and which was the original church on the Monte Santo, the site where the cathedral of Oviedo now stands. This church was rebuilt by Alfonso II. in 830, and surrounded by protecting walls. The ancient Spanish chroniclers expatiate43 on the magnificence of these buildings of Alfonso, speaking of their columns of marble, and wealth of decorations of gold and silver. Doubtless they exaggerate; to-day there is very little of interest to be seen remaining in the edifices44.{21}
Much more important are the buildings erected45 by Alfonso’s successor, Ramiro I. (843-850), a king of unusual culture, who, in spite of continual wars with the Moors, found time to carry further the improvement of the royal city of Oviedo. During this reign, writes M. Marcel Dieulafoy, “there was a veritable renaissance46 of the plastic arts.” Two of these buildings that we owe to Ramiro I. are still in existence, and though sadly neglected and disfigured by alterations47, they should be visited by all who take an interest in early Spanish work. They stand together on the summit of the low mountain Naranco, which is situated one and a quarter miles from Oviedo. The first, the Church of San Miguel, is a basilica with nave48 and aisles49. We recognise in the heavy pillars with splayed capitals and massive polygonal50 bases, as also in the frequently used cord and twisted fringe, so characteristic of the period, a marked Byzantine character. Many sculptured subjects occur among the foliage51 which decorates both the bases and capitals of the columns. These heads must be attributed either to the Roman traditions or, as is more likely, to the early French schools. The other church is even more interesting. Santa Maria de Naranco probably formed part of Ramiro’s palace, but the building was converted{22} into a church about the year 905. It consists of a cellar-like nave, with waggon52 vaulting, opening by three arches into a choir53 at one end and a presbytery at the other. Below is a crypt. Here the work shows strong Roman influence, and most precious details of ornament occur.
Another church of great interest belonging to this early period is that of San Pedro in the ancient city of Zamora. True bas-reliefs are here introduced among the leafy decorations of the capitals: one, still in excellent preservation54, represents the sacrifice of Isaac by Abraham. This is very remarkable—one of those surprises that meet the student so often in Spanish art—for the Byzantine sculptors55 did not customarily use the human figure in such circumstances.
This bas-relief brings us to the very few Spanish statues of this period, when all the skill of the artists seems to have been spent in buildings. There is the small ivory crucifix, formerly56 painted and encrusted with gems57, in the Museum of Leon (Plate 2), and the crucifix of the Cid, now at Salamanca (Plate 3). Both are Byzantine in character. The little-known statue of the Virgin58 and Child, preserved in the sanctuary59 of Ujué, is a work of greater interest. The figure is ninety-one centimetres in height, and dates, M. Marcel{23} Dieulafoy thinks, from the eleventh, or even the end of the tenth century. The colouring, and also the primitive character of the work, has been spoiled to some extent by added ornaments60, and by the silver throne on which the figure now sits. But there is real strength in the face of the Virgin, and more individuality than is common in the Byzantine figures; again we have a hint of Spanish work.
Figures in stone, dating back to the eleventh century, and earlier, may be found on the portals, fonts, and tombs of many Spanish churches, especially in the N.W. and in the district of the Pyrenees. Most of them are of barbaric workmanship, but many are interesting. A painted sculpture of the Saviour seated in the act of blessing61, in the Byzantine manner, was discovered in 1895 at Santander. M. Marcel Dieulafoy, who mentions this work, places it in the tenth or the eleventh century.
These few statues, then, are all that we have of Latin-Byzantine art in Spain. Rude as the figures undoubtedly62 are, falling far below the works of the native Iberian art which preceded them, it will not do to neglect them. Christian Spain was convulsed with ceaseless warfares, which gave little time for the development of the{24} arts. Native talent slept. Christian monarchs63 employed Moorish sculptors, architects, decorators, and goldsmiths. So it happened that there was developed in Spain a sort of pseudo-Mozarabic style in which, for a time, the characteristic Spanish work seemed lost.
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1
bust
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| vt.打破；vi.爆裂；n.半身像；胸部 | |
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situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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primitive
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| adj.原始的；简单的；n.原(始)人，原始事物 | |
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alas
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| int.唉(表示悲伤、忧愁、恐惧等) | |
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expressive
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| adj.表现的，表达…的，富于表情的 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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likeness
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| n.相像，相似（之处） | |
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persistent
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| adj.坚持不懈的，执意的；持续的 | |
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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anthropoid
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| adj.像人类的，类人猿的；n.类人猿；像猿的人 | |
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gilded
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| a.镀金的，富有的 | |
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scattered
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| adj.分散的，稀疏的；散步的；疏疏落落的 | |
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attained
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| （通常经过努力）实现( attain的过去式和过去分词 )； 达到； 获得； 达到（某年龄、水平、状况） | |
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chronologically
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| ad. 按年代的 | |
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epoch
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| n.(新)时代；历元 | |
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vestiges
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| 残余部分( vestige的名词复数 )； 遗迹； 痕迹； 毫不 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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sumptuous
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| adj.豪华的，奢侈的，华丽的 | |
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carvings
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| n.雕刻( carving的名词复数 )；雕刻术；雕刻品；雕刻物 | |
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moorish
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| adj.沼地的，荒野的，生[住]在沼地的 | |
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chaste
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| adj.贞洁的；有道德的；善良的；简朴的 | |
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consecrated
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| adj.神圣的，被视为神圣的v.把…奉为神圣，给…祝圣( consecrate的过去式和过去分词 )；奉献 | |
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embellish
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| v.装饰，布置；给…添加细节，润饰 | |
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vaulting
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| n.（天花板或屋顶的）拱形结构 | |
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relics
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| [pl.］n.遗物，遗迹，遗产；遗体，尸骸 | |
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relic
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| n.神圣的遗物，遗迹，纪念物 | |
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filigree
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| n.金银丝做的工艺品；v.用金银细丝饰品装饰；用华而不实的饰品装饰；adj.金银细丝工艺的 | |
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exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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delicacy
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| n.精致，细微，微妙，精良；美味，佳肴 | |
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rubies
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| 红宝石( ruby的名词复数 )； 红宝石色，深红色 | |
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ornamented
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| adj.花式字体的v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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inscription
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| n.（尤指石块上的）刻印文字，铭文，碑文 | |
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engraved
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| v.在（硬物）上雕刻（字，画等）( engrave的过去式和过去分词 )；将某事物深深印在（记忆或头脑中） | |
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inscriptions
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| （作者）题词( inscription的名词复数 )； 献词； 碑文； 证劵持有人的登记 | |
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saviour
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| n.拯救者，救星 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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mingling
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| adj.混合的 | |
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moors
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| v.停泊，系泊（船只）( moor的第三人称单数 ) | |
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expatiate
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| v.细说，详述 | |
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edifices
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| n.大建筑物( edifice的名词复数 ) | |
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45
ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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renaissance
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| n.复活，复兴，文艺复兴 | |
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alterations
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| n.改动( alteration的名词复数 )；更改；变化；改变 | |
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nave
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| n.教堂的中部；本堂 | |
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aisles
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| n. (席位间的)通道, 侧廊 | |
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50
polygonal
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| adj.多角形的，多边形的 | |
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foliage
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| n.叶子，树叶，簇叶 | |
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waggon
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| n.运货马车，运货车；敞篷车箱 | |
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choir
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| n.唱诗班，唱诗班的席位，合唱团，舞蹈团；v.合唱 | |
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preservation
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| n.保护，维护，保存，保留，保持 | |
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sculptors
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| 雕刻家，雕塑家( sculptor的名词复数 )； [天]玉夫座 | |
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formerly
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| adv.从前，以前 | |
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gems
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| growth； economy； management； and customer satisfaction 增长 | |
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virgin
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| n.处女，未婚女子；adj.未经使用的；未经开发的 | |
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sanctuary
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| n.圣所，圣堂，寺庙；禁猎区，保护区 | |
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ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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blessing
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| n.祈神赐福；祷告；祝福，祝愿 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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monarchs
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| 君主，帝王( monarch的名词复数 ) | |
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