During the Romanesque and, even more, in the early Gothic periods the creative forces of art in Spain found its expression, after building, in carving1 in stone and wood. A wealth of ornament2 meets us in every building, for it must be remembered that the churches are the real museums of Spain. We have in the last chapter spoken incidentally of some of these carvings3 in connection with the churches for which they were executed. It is now necessary to examine in detail the most representative of these works. Among them we shall find many beautiful examples of polychrome statuary.
All the statues of this time were coloured, for Spain, always tenacious4 in her habits, never wavered from the custom of colouring her carvings to resemble life. However, few pieces retain manifest traces of such colourisation, the tints5 having been lost through the action of the atmos{38}phere, as well as through frequent washings. The statues in the Gloria of Santiago de Compostella (Plate 30) are among the earliest works that are clearly painted, and even in these, as we have seen, it is very doubtful if the present tints represent the original colours used.
For this reason a very special interest attaches to the fine font in enamelled bronze, now in the Museum of Burgos, which came from the monastery7 of Santo Domingo at Silos. This remarkable8 and fine work is coloured and richly encrusted with gold and jewels, but of these unfortunately many have disappeared. Seated on a throne, the figure of God the Father occupies the centre, and ranged on either side are the twelve Apostles. The figures are set in a kind of frame formed by columns placed on a base of metal crossed by horizontal bars. Two winged monsters are in the triangles on either side, and a dove is placed above the figure of God. Small rectangular enamelled medallions are encrusted in the frame. Colour is used for the robes of the figures, for the winged monsters, the dove, and the medallions, the predominant tints being dark blue or vivid green. The heads, the hands, and the feet, as well as the architectural motives9, are all in gold. Polished stones in bezel settings alternate in the decoration{39} of the frame with the coloured medallions, and though many of the stones have disappeared this rich setting helps the effect of the whole bas-relief, which is one of great splendour.
Besides the altar font the old monastery of Silos possessed10 a rich collection of religious furniture. Among those which have been saved are a chalice11, used under the Mozarabic ritual for celebrating the communion, a very beautiful specimen12 of the mudéjar goldsmith’s work; an altar-screen of engraved13 copper14 with figures of the Apostles; and several small cofferets or caskets. One of these, composed of an elephant’s tusk15, belonged to Rahman III., Khalif of Cordova, at the beginning of the tenth century; another, made at Cuenca in 1026, is of ivory, and represents a Mussulman: it was mounted in enamel6 at a later date (about 1150).
The ancient Convent of San Marcos at Leon is another church which has retained its ancient treasures; among them are several polychromes. These do not seem to have been repainted. Unfortunately half of the precious collection has been stolen: those that remain are now in the Museum at Leon. The figures are carved in wood, and the head, hands, and nude16 parts are coloured. The vestments, made of cloth, hardened{40} by means of a glaze17, are also coloured, the tints used being very harmonious18. There is also a carved triptych in wood of the same date, but the carving of the figures is not so good and the colours used are cruder. The statue of San Francisco (Plate 31) belongs to a later date. It is a most interesting polychrome, with splendid character in the rendering19 of the head. In the Cathedral of Leon are various statues which belong to the same period, while in the cloisters20 is an interesting bas-relief, Our Lady del Foro and the Offering of the Kings (Plate 33).
Some fine carvings, in the French style, come from the Portenda de San Miguel, Estella. This style of carving spread over the whole of Spain, and additional examples may be seen in the Cathedral of Sangüesa, in two interesting and little-known churches at Olete, in the Cathedral of Basque Vittoria, and in the old churches of Leon and Valencia.
Statues on tombs are very numerous, and we find them in almost every church. At first the figures are rudely carved, the skill of the artist being expended21 on the frames, and the cast of the features being largely a convention. Indeed these early monumental figures cannot be regarded as portraits. Among the first examples are the{41} figures on the royal monument at Najera, erected22 by Sancho III. 1157. Here the figures are mere23 puppets. Another early tomb is that in the Convent of Las Huelgas, Burgos (Plate 34). Even the sarcophagus of St. Eulalia, at Barcelona, of as late a date as 1327, with its Pisan reminiscences, shows how easily art was sometimes satisfied at this period.
But there are some really fine tombs belonging to the Romanesque period. The Church of the Magdalena—formerly of the Templars—at Zamora contains two knights’ tombs, one of which M. Marcel Dieulafoy considers the finest Romanesque tomb in Spain. The figure, just expired and resting on the death-bed, is placed beneath a portico24 of twin balustrades which crown the structure. Fantastic animals are carved on the spandrils, and the columns and capitals are richly decorated. The couch stands against a wall, on which are sculptured seraphs, while two angels bear away to Paradise the materialised soul of the dead man wrapped in a winding-sheet. This device is common in Spain, where there are many tombs of the same character, but, writes M. Marcel Dieulafoy, “I do not know of one where the decorative25 sculpture is rendered more boldly or with greater talent.{42}”
The statues, once funeral monuments, but now set into the wall of the old Cathedral of Salamanca, are important as being among the most complete examples of the twelfth-century polychrome (Plate 35). The sarcophagus, the reclining figures, and the niches27 containing them are all painted—red, blue-black, and white being the predominating tints. There are some traces of yellow, probably due, as M. Marcel Dieulafoy suggests, to the sizing used in fixing the gilding28; there are also some green tints in the foliage29 which decorates the arch in one of the tombs. Fortunately these statues have suffered very little from the hand of the restorer. The statue of Diego de Anaya on the tomb in the Capilla de San Bartolomé, to the south of the cloisters, is another work of importance in the same cathedral. It is quite ideal in its treatment.
The Cathedral of Tarragona represents the same diversity in its statuary as we have noted30 in its architectural styles. Thus the statuary of the west fa?ade may be divided into three distinct groups. The first, date about 1278, consists of the beautiful sculptured figures of nine Apostles, placed on the main portal, which were carved by the Catalan artist Maestro Bartolomé (Plate 36). The Apostles and Prophets on the buttresses31 were{43} executed a century later by Jaime Castayls, another native Catalan carver. They are clumsy and of ordinary character compared with the delicate work of Maestro Bartolomé. The group of the Virgin32 and Child which is placed above the pillars of the great door is not native work, but comes certainly from France. The author is unknown.
The cloisters and portals of the Cathedral of Burgos offer another example of an admirable museum of sculpture. The earlier carvings—such, for instance, as the figures on the Apostles’ door (Plate 37), belonging to the opening years of the thirteenth century—are somewhat stiff and constrained33 in style and contrast with the graceful34 ease of the later works of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries (Plate 38). The special interest of the cloisters is that its carvings are coloured, and fortunately up to the present they have not suffered from restoration (Plates 39-41). The colours are faded, but we can see that the vivid reds and blues35, so much loved by the Moorish36 artists employed by the Christians37 of this period, were used, as well as a preponderance of gilding. Here, as at Salamanca, the general tone of the colourisation is in the mudèjar style.
The cloisters of Pampeluna are in the same style and little inferior to those of Burgos. The{44} statues and bas-reliefs are in stone; the most beautiful, and one of the finest examples left to us from the fourteenth century, is that which represents the Death of the Virgin. Unfortunately the colouring of this piece and of all the statues at Pampeluna has been ruined by restoration.
The Cathedral of Burgos is rich in Gothic tombs. The statues of St. Ferdinand and Beatrice of Swabia, on the north wall of the cloisters, are among the finest specimens38 of portrait sculpture. In the same place is the late Gothic tomb of Don Gonzalo de Burgos. The monument of Archbishop Maurice (died 1238), which is in the centre of the choir40, is also a work of special importance, showing, as it does, the skill of the Spanish artists in enamelled copper (Plate 43). Of the same style is the tomb of Jaime of Aragon (Plate 46), who died in 1334, in Tarragona Cathedral, and two monuments in the Cathedral of Leon, that of Martin, the first bishop39 of the city (Plate 47), the other of Don Ordo?o II., who died 923 (Plate 48). All three monuments are of excellent workmanship, and important as fine specimens of portrait sculpture. We may mention also the sarcophagus of St. Vincent and his sisters, SS. Sabina and Criseta, in the Church of San Vicente at Avila (Plate 49), with notable reliefs of the thir{45}teenth century, and surmounted41 by a Gothic canopy42 of a later date—about 1465—resting upon coupled columns. But indeed it is difficult to make a selection among the numerous monuments that claim attention. One work stands out as a masterpiece. The magnificent tomb of Archbishop Lopez de Luna, in the Seo of Zaragoza, is the most splendid example of the French-Gothic style in Spain (Plate 50). Even so calm a critic as Professor Carl Justi pronounces this work “a masterpiece.” Mitre on his head, a cross in his hand, and dressed in rich pontifical43 robes, the figure reclines on the sarcophagus. The face, set in the calm of death, is modelled by a master hand. Behind, placed in a niche26 which is cut in the thickness of the wall, stand a company of monks44 and nuns45, who weep for their benefactor46. Other figures are grouped along the inner face of the tomb; each is marked with character, and is carved with fine skill. But it is not possible to convey in words the effect of this splendid and simple work. In its style it may be compared with the mausoleum of Philippe the Bold, the masterpiece of Burgundian art. It is of the same date, and M. Marcel Dieulafoy believes that the Spanish monument must have been executed in Spain by Aragonese artists who had learnt the{46} art of carving in France. This opinion of French influence directing the native artists is supported by the fact that the Tarragona monument is not a solitary47 example. This French style of carving spread over the Peninsula; the cathedrals of Burgos, Leon, and Toledo—to name a few out of many churches—are rich in similar monuments. It is necessary to remember this close connection between the arts of France and Spain. The great ecclesiastical orders of France, and especially that of Cluny, gave inspiration to the Romanesque and Gothic periods. It was not until the last third of the fifteenth century, when a new art method came from the Netherlands, that the French influence weakened. Spanish art was almost invariably stimulated48 from without. But it was these imported art-styles, naturally awakening49 imitation, which called into existence the native schools of carving, and showed anew those distinct traits which can be called Spanish.
There were at this time, in Castile and Aragon, a number of really capable native artists; without doubt they learnt their art from the French sculptors50 who had settled in Spain. The most skilful51 native worker was Juan de la Huarte, of whose exquisite52 Virgin we shall speak directly. But besides Juan de la Huarte, we know of Pedro de{47} Vallfongona, called Father Johan, who has left many fine carvings; and Jordi Johan, doubtless his brother, commonly known as Maestro Jordi, maker53 of images, the author, among other works, of the Sepulchre of Juana, Countess of Asturias (1386), and of the Archangel Raphael, which crowns the beautiful doorway54 of Barcelona Town Hall. Then there was Pedro Oller, who carved, in 1450, the screen of the grand altar of Vich, and, in 1442, the tomb of Ferdinand I. of Aragon. There were also skilled goldsmiths such as Marcos Canzes and Francisco Vilardell; nor must we forget the unknown author of the incomparable Custodia of Vich Cathedral, a splendid example of the silver-work of the period.
Before closing this chapter it is left to notice a few isolated55 works that are treasured in the different cities of the Peninsula. And first must come the perfect statues and statuettes of the Virgin, which, as we might expect in religious Spain, are to be found in almost all the great churches. That known as the Virgin of Huarte, which was carved by Juan de la Huarte, was brought to Pampeluna in 1349. The statue is of white marble, and the face and vestments still bear traces of colour. Of a noble simplicity56, it is one of the most exquisite produc{48}tions of art in the fourteenth century. Of less ideal beauty, but more Spanish in its sentiment, being without the French influence, is St. Ferdinand’s small ivory statuette of the Virgen de las Batallas in the Capilla Real of Seville Cathedral. This is one of the earliest works of the kind in Spain. The Cathedral of Plasencia has several images of the Virgin. Good examples—one in silver and richly jewelled—are found at Burgos and Salamanca (Plates 51 and 52), besides figures carved in wood and coloured, and also at Toledo, Sigüenza, Gandía, Segunto, and the churches in many other cities. The Santo Cristo of Burgos Cathedral may also be mentioned. Madonnas are to be seen over the altars of chapels58, in gateways59, or in the great retablos, as for instance at Leon (Plate 53), or again at Tortosa and Palma, where, in the last church, a really beautiful statue is hidden by a modern altar. Among these Madonnas are works full of dignity and sweetness, of genuine beauty, and carved without stiffness or looseness. They give a convincing defiance60 to those who decry61 ancient polychrome.
Very different in character, but of equal merit, is the small statue, silver painted, of St. George in the Audiencia Chapel57 at Barcelona. M. Marcel Dieulafoy believes that we owe this fine work to a{49} native artist. The figure, standing62 fully63 armed, is carved with youthful energy; the face, seen under the gilt64 visor, has lost none of its freshness, and the original tints of colouring remain. The armour65 is of oxidised silver, while the hinges, nails, belt, dragon, and pedestal are of burnished66 gilt. Of this statue M. Marcel Dieulafoy writes: “Had Meissonier painted the figure he could not have done it otherwise.” Again we have a triumph of polychrome.
Other statues worthy67 of special mention are the busts68, executed in enamelled silver, of S. Valerius, S. Vincent, and S. Laurent, in the Treasury69 of Zaragoza Cathedral; the figures of Don Gutierre de Cardenas, Duke of Magueda, and of his wife, Do?a Teresa Enriquez, each offering respectively their son and daughter to the Virgin, and the finer praying figure of Juan II. of Castile, who ruled from 1406 to 1454, and was the father of Isabella the Catholic. These statues are in Burgos Cathedral. Gems70 among smaller works of art are the plates in silver, showing scenes in the life of the Virgin, which cover the high altar in the Cathedral of Gerona. Their date is 1348.
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1
carving
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| n.雕刻品，雕花 | |
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ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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carvings
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| n.雕刻( carving的名词复数 )；雕刻术；雕刻品；雕刻物 | |
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tenacious
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| adj.顽强的，固执的，记忆力强的，粘的 | |
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tints
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| 色彩( tint的名词复数 )； 带白的颜色； （淡色）染发剂； 痕迹 | |
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enamel
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| n.珐琅，搪瓷，瓷釉；(牙齿的)珐琅质 | |
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monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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remarkable
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| adj.显著的，异常的，非凡的，值得注意的 | |
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motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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chalice
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| n.圣餐杯；金杯毒酒 | |
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specimen
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| n.样本，标本 | |
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engraved
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| v.在（硬物）上雕刻（字，画等）( engrave的过去式和过去分词 )；将某事物深深印在（记忆或头脑中） | |
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copper
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| n.铜；铜币；铜器；adj.铜(制)的；(紫)铜色的 | |
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tusk
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| n.獠牙，长牙，象牙 | |
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nude
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| adj.裸体的；n.裸体者，裸体艺术品 | |
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glaze
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| v.因疲倦、疲劳等指眼睛变得呆滞，毫无表情 | |
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harmonious
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| adj.和睦的，调和的，和谐的，协调的 | |
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rendering
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| n.表现，描写 | |
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cloisters
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| n.（学院、修道院、教堂等建筑的）走廊( cloister的名词复数 )；回廊；修道院的生活；隐居v.隐退，使与世隔绝( cloister的第三人称单数 ) | |
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expended
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| v.花费( expend的过去式和过去分词 )；使用（钱等）做某事；用光；耗尽 | |
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ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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portico
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| n.柱廊，门廊 | |
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decorative
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| adj.装饰的，可作装饰的 | |
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niche
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| n.壁龛；合适的职务(环境、位置等) | |
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niches
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| 壁龛( niche的名词复数 )； 合适的位置[工作等]； （产品的）商机； 生态位（一个生物所占据的生境的最小单位） | |
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gilding
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| n.贴金箔，镀金 | |
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foliage
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| n.叶子，树叶，簇叶 | |
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noted
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| adj.著名的，知名的 | |
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buttresses
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| n.扶壁，扶垛( buttress的名词复数 )v.用扶壁支撑，加固( buttress的第三人称单数 ) | |
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virgin
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| n.处女，未婚女子；adj.未经使用的；未经开发的 | |
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constrained
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| adj.束缚的,节制的 | |
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graceful
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| adj.优美的，优雅的；得体的 | |
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blues
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| n.抑郁，沮丧；布鲁斯音乐 | |
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moorish
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| adj.沼地的，荒野的，生[住]在沼地的 | |
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Christians
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| n.基督教徒( Christian的名词复数 ) | |
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specimens
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| n.样品( specimen的名词复数 )；范例；（化验的）抽样；某种类型的人 | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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choir
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| n.唱诗班，唱诗班的席位，合唱团，舞蹈团；v.合唱 | |
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surmounted
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| 战胜( surmount的过去式和过去分词 )； 克服（困难）； 居于…之上； 在…顶上 | |
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canopy
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| n.天篷，遮篷 | |
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pontifical
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| adj.自以为是的，武断的 | |
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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nuns
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| n.（通常指基督教的）修女， （佛教的）尼姑( nun的名词复数 ) | |
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benefactor
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| n. 恩人，行善的人，捐助人 | |
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solitary
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| adj.孤独的，独立的，荒凉的；n.隐士 | |
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stimulated
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| a.刺激的 | |
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awakening
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| n.觉醒，醒悟 adj.觉醒中的；唤醒的 | |
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sculptors
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| 雕刻家，雕塑家( sculptor的名词复数 )； [天]玉夫座 | |
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skilful
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| (=skillful)adj.灵巧的，熟练的 | |
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exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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maker
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| n.制造者，制造商 | |
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doorway
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| n.门口，(喻)入门；门路，途径 | |
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isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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simplicity
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| n.简单，简易；朴素；直率，单纯 | |
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chapel
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| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
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chapels
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| n.小教堂， （医院、监狱等的）附属礼拜堂( chapel的名词复数 )；（在小教堂和附属礼拜堂举行的）礼拜仪式 | |
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gateways
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| n.网关( gateway的名词复数 )；门径；方法；大门口 | |
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defiance
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| n.挑战，挑衅，蔑视，违抗 | |
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decry
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| v.危难，谴责 | |
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standing
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| n.持续，地位；adj.永久的，不动的，直立的，不流动的 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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gilt
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| adj.镀金的；n.金边证券 | |
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armour
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| （=armor）n.盔甲；装甲部队 | |
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burnished
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| adj.抛光的，光亮的v.擦亮（金属等），磨光( burnish的过去式和过去分词 )；被擦亮，磨光 | |
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worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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busts
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| 半身雕塑像( bust的名词复数 )； 妇女的胸部； 胸围； 突击搜捕 | |
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treasury
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| n.宝库；国库，金库；文库 | |
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70
gems
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| growth； economy； management； and customer satisfaction 增长 | |
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