The Druids combined the functions of the priest, the magistrate2, the scholar, and the physician. They stood to the people of the Celtic tribes in a relation closely analogous3 to that in which the Brahmans of India, the Magi of Persia, and the priests of the Egyptians stood to the people respectively by whom they were revered4.
The Druids taught the existence of one god, to whom they gave a name “Be’ al,” which Celtic antiquaries tell us means “the life of everything,” or “the source of all beings,” and which seems to have affinity5 with the Ph?nician Baal. What renders this affinity more striking is that the Druids as well as the Ph?nicians identified this, their supreme6 deity7, with the Sun. Fire was regarded as a symbol of the divinity. The Latin writers assert that the Druids also worshipped numerous inferior gods.
They used no images to represent the object of their worship, nor did they meet in temples or buildings of any kind for the performance of their sacred rites8. A circle of stones (each stone generally of vast size), enclosing an area of from twenty feet to thirty yards in diameter, constituted their sacred place. The most celebrated9 of these now remaining is Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain, England.
These sacred circles were generally situated10 near some stream, or under the shadow of a grove11 or widespreading oak. In the centre of the circle stood the Cromlech or altar, which was a large stone, placed in the manner of a table upon other stones set up on end. The Druids had also their high places, which were large stones or piles of stones on the summits of hills. These were called Cairns, and were used in the worship of the deity under the symbol of the sun.
That the Druids offered sacrifices to their deity there can be no doubt. But there is some uncertainty12 as to what they offered, and of the ceremonies connected with their religious services we know almost nothing. The classical (Roman) writers affirm that they offered on great occasions human sacrifices; as for success in war or for relief from dangerous diseases. C?sar has given a detailed13 account of the manner in which this was done. “They have images of immense size, the limbs of which are framed with twisted twigs14 and filled with living persons. These being set on fire, those within are encompassed15 by the flames.” Many attempts have been made by Celtic writers to shake the testimony16 of the Roman historians to this fact, but without success.
The Druids observed two festivals in each year. The former took place in the beginning of May, and was called Beltane or “fire of God.” On this occasion a large fire was kindled17 on some elevated spot, in honor of the sun, whose returning beneficence they thus welcomed after the gloom and desolation of winter. Of this custom a trace remains in the name given to Whitsunday in parts of Scotland to this day. Sir Walter Scott uses the word in the “Boat Song” in the “Lady of the Lake”:
“Ours is no sapling, chance sown by the fountain,
Blooming at Beltane in winter to fade;” etc.
The other great festival of the Druids was called “Samh’in,” or “fire of peace,” and was held on Hallow-eve (first of November), which still retains this designation in the Highlands of Scotland. On this occasion the Druids assembled in solemn conclave18, in the most central part of the district, to discharge the judicial19 functions of their order. All questions, whether public or private, all crimes against person or property, were at this time brought before them for adjudication. With these judicial acts were combined certain superstitious20 usages, especially the kindling21 of the sacred fire, from which all the fires in the district, which had been beforehand scrupulously22 extinguished, might be relighted. This usage of kindling fires on Hallow-eve lingered in the British islands long after the establishment of Christianity.
Besides these two great annual festivals, the Druids were in the habit of observing the full moon, and especially the sixth day of the moon. On the latter they sought the Mistletoe, which grew on their favorite oaks, and to which, as well as to the oak itself, they ascribed a peculiar23 virtue24 and sacredness. The discovery of it was an occasion of rejoicing and solemn worship. “They call it,” says Pliny, “by a word in their language, which means ‘heal-all,’ and having made solemn preparation for feasting and sacrifice under the tree, they drive thither25 two milk-white bulls, whose horns are then for the first time bound. The priest then, robed in white, ascends26 the tree, and cuts off the mistletoe with a golden sickle28. It is caught in a white mantle29, after which they proceed to slay30 the victims, at the same time praying that God would render his gift prosperous to those to whom he had given it.” They drink the water in which it has been infused, and think it a remedy for all diseases. The mistletoe is a parasitic31 plant, and is not always nor often found on the oak, so that when it is found it is the more precious.
The Druids were the teachers of morality as well as of religion. Of their ethical32 teaching a valuable specimen33 is preserved in the Triads of the Welsh Bards34, and from this we may gather that their views of moral rectitude were on the whole just, and that they held and inculcated many very noble and valuable principles of conduct. They were also the men of science and learning of their age and people. Whether they were acquainted with letters or not has been disputed, though the probability is strong that they were, to some extent. But it is certain that they committed nothing of their doctrine35, their history, or their poetry to writing. Their teaching was oral, and their literature (if such a word may be used in such a case) was preserved solely36 by tradition. But the Roman writers admit that “they paid much attention to the order and laws of nature, and investigated and taught to the youth under their charge many things concerning the stars and their motions, the size of the world and the lands, and concerning the might and power of the immortal37 gods.”
Their history consisted in traditional tales, in which the heroic deeds of their forefathers38 were celebrated. These were apparently39 in verse, and thus constituted part of the poetry as well as the history of the Druids. In the poems of Ossian we have, if not the actual productions of Druidical times, what may be considered faithful representations of the songs of the Bards.
The Bards were an essential part of the Druidical hierarchy40. One author, Pennant41, says, “The Bards were supposed to be endowed with powers equal to inspiration. They were the oral historians of all past transactions, public and private. They were also accomplished42 genealogists,” etc.
Pennant gives a minute account of the Eisteddfods or sessions of the Bards and minstrels, which were held in Wales for many centuries, long after the Druidical priesthood in its other departments became extinct. At these meetings none but Bards of merit were suffered to rehearse their pieces, and minstrels of skill to perform. Judges were appointed to decide on their respective abilities, and suitable degrees were conferred. In the earlier period the judges were appointed by the Welsh princes, and after the conquest of Wales, by commission from the kings of England. Yet the tradition is that Edward I., in revenge for the influence of the Bards in animating43 the resistance of the people to his sway, persecuted44 them with great cruelty. This tradition has furnished the poet Gray with the subject of his celebrated ode, the “Bard.”
There are still occasional meetings of the lovers of Welsh poetry and music, held under the ancient name. Among Mrs. Hemans’ poems is one written for an Eisteddfod, or meeting of Welsh Bards, held in London, May 22, 1822. It begins with a description of the ancient meeting, of which the following lines are a part:
“. . . midst the eternal cliffs, whose strength defied
The crested45 Roman in his hour of pride;
And where the Druid’s ancient cromlech frowned,
And the oaks breathed mysterious murmurs46 round,
There thronged47 the inspired of yore! on plain or height,
In the sun’s face, beneath the eye of light,
And baring unto heaven each noble head,
Stood in the circle, where none else might tread.”
The Druidical system was at its height at the time of the Roman invasion under Julius C?sar. Against the Druids, as their chief enemies, these conquerors48 of the world directed their unsparing fury. The Druids, harassed49 at all points on the mainland, retreated to Anglesey and Iona, where for a season they found shelter and continued their now dishonored rites.
The Druids retained their predominance in Iona and over the adjacent islands and mainland until they were supplanted50 and their superstitions51 overturned by the arrival of St. Columba, the apostle of the Highlands, by whom the inhabitants of that district were first led to profess52 Christianity.
IONA
One of the smallest of the British Isles53, situated near a rugged55 and barren coast, surrounded by dangerous seas, and possessing no sources of internal wealth, Iona has obtained an imperishable place in history as the seat of civilization and religion at a time when the darkness of heathenism hung over almost the whole of Northern Europe. Iona or Icolmkill is situated at the extremity56 of the island of Mull, from which it is separated by a strait of half a mile in breadth, its distance from the mainland of Scotland being thirty-six miles.
Columba was a native of Ireland, and connected by birth with the princes of the land. Ireland was at that time a land of gospel light, while the western and northern parts of Scotland were still immersed in the darkness of heathenism. Columba with twelve friends landed on the island of Iona in the year of our Lord 563, having made the passage in a wicker boat covered with hides. The Druids who occupied the island endeavored to prevent his settling there, and the savage57 nations on the adjoining shores incommoded him with their hostility58, and on several occasions endangered his life by their attacks. Yet by his perseverance59 and zeal60 he surmounted61 all opposition62, procured63 from the king a gift of the island, and established there a monastery65 of which he was the abbot. He was unwearied in his labors67 to disseminate68 a knowledge of the Scriptures69 throughout the Highlands and islands of Scotland, and such was the reverence70 paid him that though not a bishop71, but merely a presbyter and monk72, the entire province with its bishops73 was subject to him and his successors. The Pictish monarch74 was so impressed with a sense of his wisdom and worth that he held him in the highest honor, and the neighboring chiefs and princes sought his counsel and availed themselves of his judgment75 in settling their disputes.
When Columba landed on Iona he was attended by twelve followers76 whom he had formed into a religious body of which he was the head. To these, as occasion required, others were from time to time added, so that the original number was always kept up. Their institution was called a monastery and the superior an abbot, but the system had little in common with the monastic institutions of later times. The name by which those who submitted to the rule were known was that of Culdees, probably from the Latin “cultores Dei”—worshippers of God. They were a body of religious persons associated together for the purpose of aiding each other in the common work of preaching the gospel and teaching youth, as well as maintaining in themselves the fervor77 of devotion by united exercises of worship. On entering the order certain vows78 were taken by the members, but they were not those which were usually imposed by monastic orders, for of these, which are three,—celibacy, poverty, and obedience79.—the Culdees were bound to none except the third. To poverty they did not bind80 themselves; on the contrary they seem to have labored81 diligently82 to procure64 for themselves and those dependent on them the comforts of life. Marriage also was allowed them, and most of them seem to have entered into that state. True, their wives were not permitted to reside with them at the institution, but they had a residence assigned to them in an adjacent locality. Near Iona there is an island which still bears the name of “Eilen nam ban,” women’s island, where their husbands seem to have resided with them, except when duty required their presence in the school or the sanctuary83.
Campbell, in his poem of “Reullura,” alludes84 to the married monks85 of Iona:
“. . . The pure Culdees
Were Albyn’s earliest priests of God,
Ere yet an island of her seas
By foot of Saxon monk was trod,
Long ere her churchmen by bigotry86
Were barred from holy wedlock’s tie.
’Twas then that Aodh, famed afar,
In Iona preached the word with power,
And Reullura, beauty’s star,
Was the partner of his bower87.”
In one of his “Irish Melodies,” Moore gives the legend of St. Senanus and the lady who sought shelter on the island, but was repulsed88:
“O, haste and leave this sacred isle54,
Unholy bark, ere morning smile;
For on thy deck, though dark it be,
A female form I see;
And I have sworn this sainted sod
Shall ne’er by woman’s foot be trod.”
In these respects and in others the Culdees departed from the established rules of the Romish church, and consequently were deemed heretical. The consequence was that as the power of the latter advanced that of the Culdees was enfeebled. It was not, however, till the thirteenth century that the communities of the Culdees were suppressed and the members dispersed89. They still continued to labor66 as individuals, and resisted the inroads of Papal usurpation90 as they best might till the light of the Reformation dawned on the world.
Iona, from its position in the western seas, was exposed to the assaults of the Norwegian and Danish rovers by whom those seas were infested91, and by them it was repeatedly pillaged92, its dwellings93 burned, and its peaceful inhabitants put to the sword. These unfavorable circumstances led to its gradual decline, which was expedited by the subversion94 of the Culdees throughout Scotland. Under the reign95 of Popery the island became the seat of a nunnery, the ruins of which are still seen. At the Reformation, the nuns96 were allowed to remain, living in community, when the abbey was dismantled97.
Iona is now chiefly resorted to by travellers on account of the numerous ecclesiastical and sepulchral98 remains which are found upon it. The principal of these are the Cathedral or Abbey Church and the Chapel99 of the Nunnery. Besides these remains of ecclesiastical antiquity100, there are some of an earlier date, and pointing to the existence on the island of forms of worship and belief different from those of Christianity. These are the circular Cairns which are found in various parts, and which seem to have been of Druidical origin. It is in reference to all these remains of ancient religion that Johnson exclaims, “That man is little to be envied whose patriotism101 would not gain force upon the plains of Marathon, or whose piety102 would not grow warmer amid the ruins of Iona.”
In the “Lord of the Isles” Scott beautifully contrasts the church on Iona with the cave of Staffa, opposite:
“Nature herself, it seemed, would raise
A minister to her Maker’s praise!
Not for a meaner use ascend27
Her columns, or her arches bend;
Nor of a theme less solemn tells
That mighty103 surge that ebbs104 and swells105,
And still between each awful pause,
From the high vault106 an answer draws,
In varied107 tone, prolonged and high,
That mocks the organ’s melody;
Nor doth its entrance front in vain
To old Iona’s holy fane,
That Nature’s voice might seem to say,
Well hast thou done, frail108 child of clay!
Thy humble109 powers that stately shrine110
Tasked high and hard—but witness mine!”
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1
remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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magistrate
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| n.地方行政官，地方法官，治安官 | |
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analogous
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| adj.相似的；类似的 | |
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revered
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| v.崇敬，尊崇，敬畏( revere的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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affinity
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| n.亲和力，密切关系 | |
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supreme
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| adj.极度的，最重要的；至高的，最高的 | |
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deity
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| n.神，神性；被奉若神明的人(或物) | |
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rites
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| 仪式，典礼( rite的名词复数 ) | |
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celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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grove
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| n.林子，小树林，园林 | |
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12
uncertainty
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| n.易变，靠不住，不确知，不确定的事物 | |
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detailed
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| adj.详细的，详尽的，极注意细节的，完全的 | |
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twigs
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| 细枝，嫩枝( twig的名词复数 ) | |
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encompassed
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| v.围绕( encompass的过去式和过去分词 )；包围；包含；包括 | |
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16
testimony
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| n.证词；见证，证明 | |
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kindled
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| （使某物）燃烧，着火( kindle的过去式和过去分词 )； 激起（感情等）； 发亮，放光 | |
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conclave
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| n.秘密会议，红衣主教团 | |
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19
judicial
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| adj.司法的，法庭的，审判的，明断的，公正的 | |
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20
superstitious
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| adj.迷信的 | |
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21
kindling
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| n. 点火, 可燃物 动词kindle的现在分词形式 | |
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22
scrupulously
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| adv.一丝不苟地；小心翼翼地，多顾虑地 | |
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23
peculiar
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| adj.古怪的，异常的；特殊的，特有的 | |
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virtue
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| n.德行，美德；贞操；优点；功效，效力 | |
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thither
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| adv.向那里；adj.在那边的，对岸的 | |
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ascends
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| v.上升，攀登( ascend的第三人称单数 ) | |
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ascend
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| vi.渐渐上升，升高；vt.攀登，登上 | |
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28
sickle
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| n.镰刀 | |
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29
mantle
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| n.斗篷，覆罩之物，罩子；v.罩住，覆盖，脸红 | |
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30
slay
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| v.杀死，宰杀，杀戮 | |
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31
parasitic
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| adj.寄生的 | |
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32
ethical
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| adj.伦理的，道德的，合乎道德的 | |
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33
specimen
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| n.样本，标本 | |
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34
bards
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| n.诗人( bard的名词复数 ) | |
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35
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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36
solely
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| adv.仅仅，唯一地 | |
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37
immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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38
forefathers
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| n.祖先，先人；祖先，祖宗( forefather的名词复数 )；列祖列宗；前人 | |
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39
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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40
hierarchy
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| n.等级制度；统治集团，领导层 | |
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41
pennant
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| n.三角旗；锦标旗 | |
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42
accomplished
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| adj.有才艺的；有造诣的；达到了的 | |
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43
animating
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| v.使有生气( animate的现在分词 )；驱动；使栩栩如生地动作；赋予…以生命 | |
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44
persecuted
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| （尤指宗教或政治信仰的）迫害(~sb. for sth.)( persecute的过去式和过去分词 )； 烦扰，困扰或骚扰某人 | |
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45
crested
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| adj.有顶饰的，有纹章的，有冠毛的v.到达山顶（或浪峰）( crest的过去式和过去分词 )；到达洪峰，达到顶点 | |
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46
murmurs
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| n.低沉、连续而不清的声音( murmur的名词复数 )；低语声；怨言；嘀咕 | |
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47
thronged
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| v.成群，挤满( throng的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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conquerors
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| 征服者，占领者( conqueror的名词复数 ) | |
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harassed
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| adj. 疲倦的，厌烦的 动词harass的过去式和过去分词 | |
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supplanted
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| 把…排挤掉，取代( supplant的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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51
superstitions
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| 迷信，迷信行为( superstition的名词复数 ) | |
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52
profess
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| v.声称，冒称，以...为业，正式接受入教，表明信仰 | |
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53
isles
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| 岛( isle的名词复数 ) | |
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isle
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| n.小岛，岛 | |
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rugged
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| adj.高低不平的，粗糙的，粗壮的，强健的 | |
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56
extremity
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| n.末端，尽头；尽力；终极；极度 | |
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57
savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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58
hostility
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| n.敌对，敌意；抵制［pl.］交战，战争 | |
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59
perseverance
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| n.坚持不懈，不屈不挠 | |
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zeal
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| n.热心，热情，热忱 | |
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61
surmounted
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| 战胜( surmount的过去式和过去分词 )； 克服（困难）； 居于…之上； 在…顶上 | |
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62
opposition
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| n.反对，敌对 | |
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63
procured
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| v.（努力）取得， （设法）获得( procure的过去式和过去分词 )；拉皮条 | |
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64
procure
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| vt.获得，取得，促成；vi.拉皮条 | |
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65
monastery
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| n.修道院，僧院，寺院 | |
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66
labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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labors
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| v.努力争取(for)( labor的第三人称单数 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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68
disseminate
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| v.散布；传播 | |
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69
scriptures
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| 经文，圣典( scripture的名词复数 )； 经典 | |
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reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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bishops
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| （基督教某些教派管辖大教区的）主教( bishop的名词复数 )； （国际象棋的）象 | |
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monarch
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| n.帝王，君主，最高统治者 | |
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judgment
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| n.审判；判断力，识别力，看法，意见 | |
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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fervor
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| n.热诚；热心；炽热 | |
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vows
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| 誓言( vow的名词复数 )； 郑重宣布，许愿 | |
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obedience
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| n.服从，顺从 | |
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bind
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| vt.捆，包扎；装订；约束；使凝固；vi.变硬 | |
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labored
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| adj.吃力的，谨慎的v.努力争取(for)( labor的过去式和过去分词 )；苦干；详细分析；（指引擎）缓慢而困难地运转 | |
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diligently
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| ad.industriously;carefully | |
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sanctuary
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| n.圣所，圣堂，寺庙；禁猎区，保护区 | |
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alludes
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| 提及，暗指( allude的第三人称单数 ) | |
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monks
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| n.修道士，僧侣( monk的名词复数 ) | |
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bigotry
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| n.偏见，偏执，持偏见的行为[态度]等 | |
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bower
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| n.凉亭，树荫下凉快之处；闺房；v.荫蔽 | |
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repulsed
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| v.击退( repulse的过去式和过去分词 )；驳斥；拒绝 | |
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dispersed
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| adj. 被驱散的, 被分散的, 散布的 | |
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usurpation
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| n.篡位；霸占 | |
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infested
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| adj.为患的，大批滋生的（常与with搭配）v.害虫、野兽大批出没于( infest的过去式和过去分词 )；遍布于 | |
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pillaged
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| v.抢劫，掠夺( pillage的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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dwellings
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| n.住处，处所( dwelling的名词复数 ) | |
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subversion
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| n.颠覆，破坏 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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nuns
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| n.（通常指基督教的）修女， （佛教的）尼姑( nun的名词复数 ) | |
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dismantled
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| 拆开( dismantle的过去式和过去分词 )； 拆卸； 废除； 取消 | |
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sepulchral
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| adj.坟墓的，阴深的 | |
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chapel
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| n.小教堂，殡仪馆 | |
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antiquity
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| n.古老；高龄；古物，古迹 | |
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patriotism
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| n.爱国精神，爱国心，爱国主义 | |
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piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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mighty
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| adj.强有力的；巨大的 | |
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ebbs
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| 退潮( ebb的名词复数 )； 落潮； 衰退 | |
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swells
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| 增强( swell的第三人称单数 )； 肿胀； （使）凸出； 充满（激情） | |
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vault
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| n.拱形圆顶，地窖，地下室 | |
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varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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frail
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| adj.身体虚弱的；易损坏的 | |
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humble
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| adj.谦卑的，恭顺的；地位低下的；v.降低，贬低 | |
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shrine
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| n.圣地，神龛，庙；v.将...置于神龛内，把...奉为神圣 | |
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