The word “Chivalry” is derived18 from the French “cheval,” a horse. The word “knight20,” which originally meant boy or servant, was particularly applied21 to a young man after he was admitted to the privilege of bearing arms. This privilege was conferred on youths of family and fortune only, for the mass of the people were not furnished with arms. The knight then was a mounted warrior22, a man of rank, or in the service and maintenance of some man of rank, generally possessing some independent means of support, but often relying mainly on the gratitude23 of those whom he served for the supply of his wants, and often, no doubt, resorting to the means which power confers on its possessor.
In time of war the knight was, with his followers24, in the camp of his sovereign, or commanding in the field, or holding some castle for him. In time of peace he was often in attendance at his sovereign’s court, gracing with his presence the banquets and tournaments with which princes cheered their leisure. Or he was traversing the country in quest of adventure, professedly bent26 on redressing27 wrongs and enforcing rights, sometimes in fulfilment of some vow29 of religion or of love. These wandering knights30 were called knights-errant; they were welcome guests in the castles of the nobility, for their presence enlivened the dulness of those secluded31 abodes32, and they were received with honor at the abbeys, which often owed the best part of their revenues to the patronage33 of the knights; but if no castle or abbey or hermitage were at hand their hardy34 habits made it not intolerable to them to lie down, supperless, at the foot of some wayside cross, and pass the night.
It is evident that the justice administered by such an instrumentality must have been of the rudest description. The force whose legitimate35 purpose was to redress28 wrongs might easily be perverted36 to inflict37 them. Accordingly, we find in the romances, which, however fabulous38 in facts, are true as pictures of manners, that a knightly39 castle was often a terror to the surrounding country; that is, dungeons40 were full of oppressed knights and ladies, waiting for some champion to appear to set them free, or to be ransomed41 with money; that hosts of idle retainers were ever at hand to enforce their lord’s behests, regardless of law and justice; and that the rights of the unarmed multitude were of no account. This contrariety of fact and theory in regard to chivalry will account for the opposite impressions which exist in men’s minds respecting it. While it has been the theme of the most fervid42 eulogium on the one part, it has been as eagerly denounced on the other. On a cool estimate, we cannot but see reason to congratulate ourselves that it has given way in modern times to the reign25 of law, and that the civil magistrate43, if less picturesque44, has taken the place of the mailed champion.
THE TRAINING OF A KNIGHT
The preparatory education of candidates for knighthood was long and arduous47. At seven years of age the noble children were usually removed from their father’s house to the court or castle of their future patron, and placed under the care of a governor, who taught them the first articles of religion, and respect and reverence48 for their lords and superiors, and initiated49 them in the ceremonies of a court. They were called pages, valets, or varlets, and their office was to carve, to wait at table, and to perform other menial services, which were not then considered humiliating. In their leisure hours they learned to dance and play on the harp50, were instructed in the mysteries of woods and rivers, that is, in hunting, falconry, and fishing, and in wrestling, tilting51 with spears, and performing other military exercises on horseback. At fourteen the page became an esquire, and began a course of severer and more laborious52 exercises. To vault54 on a horse in heavy armor; to run, to scale walls, and spring over ditches, under the same encumbrance55; to wrestle56, to wield57 the battle-axe for a length of time, without raising the visor or taking breath; to perform with grace all the evolutions of horsemanship,—were necessary preliminaries to the reception of knighthood, which was usually conferred at twenty-one years of age, when the young man’s education was supposed to be completed. In the meantime, the esquires were no less assiduously engaged in acquiring all those refinements58 of civility which formed what was in that age called courtesy. The same castle in which they received their education was usually thronged59 with young persons of the other sex, and the page was encouraged, at a very early age, to select some lady of the court as the mistress of his heart, to whom he was taught to refer all his sentiments, words, and actions. The service of his mistress was the glory and occupation of a knight, and her smiles, bestowed60 at once by affection and gratitude, were held out as the recompense of his well-directed valor. Religion united its influence with those of loyalty and love, and the order of knighthood, endowed with all the sanctity and religious awe62 that attended the priesthood, became an object of ambition to the greatest sovereigns.
The ceremonies of initiation63 were peculiarly solemn. After undergoing a severe fast, and spending whole nights in prayer, the candidate confessed, and received the sacrament. He then clothed himself in snow-white garments, and repaired to the church, or the hall, where the ceremony was to take place, bearing a knightly sword suspended from his neck, which the officiating priest took and blessed, and then returned to him. The candidate then, with folded arms, knelt before the presiding knight, who, after some questions about his motives64 and purposes in requesting admission, administered to him the oaths, and granted his request. Some of the knights present, sometimes even ladies and damsels, handed to him in succession the spurs, the coat of mail, the hauberk, the armlet and gauntlet, and lastly he girded on the sword. He then knelt again before the president, who, rising from his seat, gave him the “accolade,” which consisted of three strokes, with the flat of a sword, on the shoulder or neck of the candidate, accompanied by the words: “In the name of God, of St. Michael, and St. George, I make thee a knight; be valiant65, courteous66, and loyal!” Then he received his helmet, his shield, and spear; and thus the investiture ended.
FREEMEN, VILLAINS67, SERFS, AND CLERKS
The other classes of which society was composed were, first, freemen, owners of small portions of land independent, though they sometimes voluntarily became the vassals68 of their more opulent neighbors, whose power was necessary for their protection. The other two classes, which were much the most numerous, were either serfs or villains, both of which were slaves.
The serfs were in the lowest state of slavery. All the fruits of their labor53 belonged to the master whose land they tilled, and by whom they were fed and clothed.
The villains were less degraded. Their situation seems to have resembled that of the Russian peasants at this day. Like the serfs, they were attached to the soil, and were transferred with it by purchase; but they paid only a fixed69 rent to the landlord, and had a right to dispose of any surplus that might arise from their industry.
The term “clerk” was of very extensive import. It comprehended, originally, such persons only as belonged to the clergy70, or clerical order, among whom, however, might be found a multitude of married persons, artisans or others. But in process of time a much wider rule was established; every one that could read being accounted a clerk or clericus, and allowed the “benefit of clergy,” that is, exemption71 from capital and some other forms of punishment, in case of crime.
TOURNAMENTS
The splendid pageant72 of a tournament between knights, its gaudy73 accessories and trappings, and its chivalrous74 regulations, originated in France. Tournaments were repeatedly condemned75 by the Church, probably on account of the quarrels they led to, and the often fatal results. The “joust,” or “just,” was different from the tournament. In these, knights fought with their lances, and their object was to unhorse their antagonists76; while the tournaments were intended for a display of skill and address in evolutions, and with various weapons, and greater courtesy was observed in the regulations. By these it was forbidden to wound the horse, or to use the point of the sword, or to strike a knight after he had raised his vizor, or unlaced his helmet. The ladies encouraged their knights in these exercises; they bestowed prizes, and the conqueror77’s feats78 were the theme of romance and song. The stands overlooking the ground, of course, were varied79 in the shapes of towers, terraces, galleries, and pensile gardens, magnificently decorated with tapestry80, pavilions, and banners. Every combatant proclaimed the name of the lady whose servant d’amour he was. He was wont81 to look up to the stand, and strengthen his courage by the sight of the bright eyes that were raining their influence on him from above. The knights also carried favors, consisting of scarfs, veils, sleeves, bracelets82, clasps,—in short, some piece of female habiliment,—attached to their helmets, shields, or armor. If, during the combat, any of these appendages83 were dropped or lost the fair donor84 would at times send her knight new ones, especially if pleased with his exertions85.
MAIL ARMOR
Mail armor, of which the hauberk is a species, and which derived its name from maille, a French word for mesh86, was of two kinds, plate or scale mail, and chain mail. It was originally used for the protection of the body only, reaching no lower than the knees. It was shaped like a carter’s frock, and bound round the waist by a girdle. Gloves and hose of mail were afterwards added, and a hood46, which, when necessary, was drawn87 over the head, leaving the face alone uncovered. To protect the skin from the impression of the iron network of the chain mail, a quilted lining88 was employed, which, however, was insufficient89, and the bath was used to efface90 the marks of the armor.
The hauberk was a complete covering of double chain mail. Some hauberks opened before, like a modern coat; others were closed like a shirt.
The chain mail of which they were composed was formed by a number of iron links, each link having others inserted into it, the whole exhibiting a kind of network, of which (in some instances at least) the meshes91 were circular, with each link separately riveted92.
The hauberk was proof against the most violent blow of a sword; but the point of a lance might pass through the meshes, or drive the iron into the flesh. To guard against this, a thick and well-stuffed doublet was worn underneath93, under which was commonly added an iron breastplate. Hence the expression “to pierce both plate and mail,” so common in the earlier poets.
Mail armor continued in general use till about the year 1300, when it was gradually supplanted94 by plate armor, or suits consisting of pieces or plates of solid iron, adapted to the different parts of the body.
Shields were generally made of wood, covered with leather, or some similar substance. To secure them, in some sort, from being cut through by the sword, they were surrounded with a hoop95 of metal.
HELMETS
The helmet was composed of two parts: the headpiece, which was strengthened within by several circles of iron, and the visor, which, as the name implies, was a sort of grating to see through, so contrived96 as, by sliding in a groove97, or turning on a pivot98, to be raised or lowered at pleasure. Some helmets had a further improvement called a bever, from the Italian bevere, to drink. The ventayle, or “air-passage,” is another name for this.
To secure the helmet from the possibility of falling, or of being struck off, it was tied by several laces to the meshes of the hauberk; consequently, when a knight was overthrown99 it was necessary to undo100 these laces before he could be put to death; though this was sometimes effected by lifting up the skirt of the hauberk, and stabbing him in the belly101. The instrument of death was a small dagger102, worn on the right side.
ROMANCES
In ages when there were no books, when noblemen and princes themselves could not read, history or tradition was monopolized103 by the story-tellers. They inherited, generation after generation, the wondrous104 tales of their predecessors105, which they retailed106 to the public with such additions of their own as their acquired information supplied them with. Anachronisms became of course very common, and errors of geography, of locality, of manners, equally so. Spurious genealogies107 were invented, in which Arthur and his knights, and Charlemagne and his paladins, were made to derive19 their descent from ?neas, Hector, or some other of the Trojan heroes.
With regard to the derivation of the word “Romance,” we trace it to the fact that the dialects which were formed in Western Europe, from the admixture of Latin with the native languages, took the name of Langue Romaine. The French language was divided into two dialects. The river Loire was their common boundary. In the provinces to the south of that river the affirmative, yes, was expressed by the word oc; in the north it was called oil (oui); and hence Dante has named the southern language langue d’oc, and the northern langue d’oil. The latter, which was carried into England by the Normans, and is the origin of the present French, may be called the French Romane; and the former the Proven?al, or Provencial Romane, because it was spoken by the people of Provence and Languedoc, southern provinces of France.
These dialects were soon distinguished108 by very opposite characters. A soft and enervating109 climate, a spirit of commerce encouraged by an easy communication with other maritime110 nations, the influx111 of wealth, and a more settled government, may have tended to polish and soften112 the diction of the Provencials, whose poets, under the name of Troubadours, were the masters of the Italians, and particularly of Petrarch. Their favorite pieces were Sirventes (satirical pieces), love-songs, and Ténsons, which last were a sort of dialogue in verse between two poets, who questioned each other on some refined points of loves’ casuistry. It seems the Provencials were so completely absorbed in these delicate questions as to neglect and despise the composition of fabulous histories of adventure and knighthood, which they left in a great measure to the poets of the northern part of the kingdom, called Trouveurs.
At a time when chivalry excited universal admiration113, and when all the efforts of that chivalry were directed against the enemies of religion, it was natural that literature should receive the same impulse, and that history and fable114 should be ransacked115 to furnish examples of courage and piety116 that might excite increased emulation. Arthur and Charlemagne were the two heroes selected for this purpose. Arthur’s pretensions117 were that he was a brave, though not always a successful warrior; he had withstood with great resolution the arms of the infidels, that is to say of the Saxons, and his memory was held in the highest estimation by his countrymen, the Britons, who carried with them into Wales, and into the kindred country of Armorica, or Brittany, the memory of his exploits, which their national vanity insensibly exaggerated, till the little prince of the Silures (South Wales) was magnified into the conqueror of England, of Gaul, and of the greater part of Europe. His genealogy118 was gradually carried up to an imaginary Brutus, and to the period of the Trojan war, and a sort of chronicle was composed in the Welsh, or Armorican language, which, under the pompous119 title of the “History of the Kings of Britain,” was translated into Latin by Geoffrey of Monmouth, about the year 1150. The Welsh critics consider the material of the work to have been an older history, written by St. Talian, Bishop120 of St. Asaph, in the seventh century.
As to Charlemagne, though his real merits were sufficient to secure his immortality121, it was impossible that his holy wars against the Saracens should not become a favorite topic for fiction. Accordingly, the fabulous history of these wars was written, probably towards the close of the eleventh century, by a monk122, who, thinking it would add dignity to his work to embellish123 it with a contemporary name, boldly ascribed it to Turpin, who was Archbishop of Rheims about the year 773.
These fabulous chronicles were for a while imprisoned124 in languages of local only or of professional access. Both Turpin and Geoffrey might indeed be read by ecclesiastics125, the sole Latin scholars of those times, and Geoffrey’s British original would contribute to the gratification of Welshmen; but neither could become extensively popular till translated into some language of general and familiar use. The Anglo-Saxon was at that time used only by a conquered and enslaved nation; the Spanish and Italian languages were not yet formed; the Norman French alone was spoken and understood by the nobility in the greater part of Europe, and therefore was a proper vehicle for the new mode of composition.
That language was fashionable in England before the Conquest, and became, after that event, the only language used at the court of London. As the various conquests of the Normans, and the enthusiastic valor of that extraordinary people, had familiarized the minds of men with the most marvellous events, their poets eagerly seized the fabulous legends of Arthur and Charlemagne, translated them into the language of the day, and soon produced a variety of imitations. The adventures attributed to these monarchs126, and to their distinguished warriors127, together with those of many other traditionary or imaginary heroes, composed by degrees that formidable body of marvellous histories which, from the dialect in which the most ancient of them were written, were called “Romances.”
METRICAL ROMANCES
The earliest form in which romances appear is that of a rude kind of verse. In this form it is supposed they were sung or recited at the feasts of princes and knights in their baronial halls. The following specimen128 of the language and style of Robert de Beauvais, who flourished in 1257, is from Sir Walter Scott’s “Introduction to the Romance of Sir Tristrem”:
“Ne voil pas emmi dire61,
Ici diverse la matyere,
Entre ceus qui solent cunter,
E de le cunte Tristran parler.”
“I will not say too much about it,
So diverse is the matter,
Among those who are in the habit of telling
And relating the story of Tristran.”
This is a specimen of the language which was in use among the nobility of England, in the ages immediately after the Norman conquest. The following is a specimen of the English that existed at the same time, among the common people. Robert de Brunne, speaking of his Latin and French authorities, says:
“Als thai haf wryten and sayd
Haf I alle in myn Inglis layd,
In symple speche as I couthe,
That is lightest in manne’s mouthe.
Alle for the luf of symple men,
That strange Inglis cannot ken45.”
The “strange Inglis” being the language of the previous specimen.
It was not till toward the end of the thirteenth century that the prose romances began to appear. These works generally began with disowning and discrediting129 the sources from which in reality they drew their sole information. As every romance was supposed to be a real history, the compilers of those in prose would have forfeited130 all credit if they had announced themselves as mere131 copyists of the minstrels. On the contrary, they usually state that, as the popular poems upon the matter in question contain many “lesings,” they had been induced to translate the real and true history of such or such a knight from the original Latin or Greek, or from the ancient British or Armorican authorities, which authorities existed only in their own assertion.
A specimen of the style of the prose romances may be found in the following extract from one of the most celebrated132 and latest of them, the “Morte d’Arthur” of Sir Thomas Mallory, of the date of 1485. From this work much of the contents of this volume has been drawn, with as close an adherence133 to the original style as was thought consistent with our plan of adapting our narrative134 to the taste of modern readers.
“It is notoyrly knowen thorugh the vnyuersal world that there been ix worthy135 and the best that ever were. That is to wete thre paynyms, three Jewes, and three crysten men. As for the paynyms, they were tofore the Incarnacyon of Cryst whiche were named, the fyrst Hector of Troye; the second Alysaunder the grete, and the thyrd Julyus Cezar, Emperour of Rome, of whome thystoryes ben wel kno and had. And as for the thre Jewes whyche also were tofore thyncarnacyon of our Lord, of whome the fyrst was Duc Josue, whyche brought the chyldren of Israhel into the londe of beheste; the second Dauyd, kyng of Jherusalem, and the thyrd Judas Machabeus; of these thre the byble reherceth al theyr noble hystoryes and actes. And sythe the sayd Incarnacyon haue ben the noble crysten men stalled and admytted thorugh the vnyuersal world to the nombre of the ix beste and worthy, of whome was fyrst the noble Arthur, whose noble actes I purpose to wryte in this person book here folowyng. The second was Charlemayn, or Charles the grete, of whome thystorye is had in many places both in frensshe and englysshe, and the thyrd and last was Godefray of boloyn.”
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1
destitute
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| adj.缺乏的；穷困的 | |
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dominion
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| n.统治，管辖，支配权；领土，版图 | |
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hostility
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| n.敌对，敌意；抵制［pl.］交战，战争 | |
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rivalry
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| n.竞争，竞赛，对抗 | |
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mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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jealousy
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| n.妒忌，嫉妒，猜忌 | |
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secondly
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| adv.第二，其次 | |
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motive
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| n.动机，目的；adv.发动的，运动的 | |
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generosity
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| n.大度，慷慨，慷慨的行为 | |
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chivalry
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| n.骑士气概，侠义；（男人）对女人彬彬有礼，献殷勤 | |
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invincible
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| adj.不可征服的，难以制服的 | |
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valor
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| n.勇气，英勇 | |
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modesty
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| n.谦逊，虚心，端庄，稳重，羞怯，朴素 | |
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loyalty
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| n.忠诚，忠心 | |
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compassion
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| n.同情，怜悯 | |
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devotedness
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emulation
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| n.竞争；仿效 | |
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derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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knight
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| n.骑士，武士；爵士 | |
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applied
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| adj.应用的；v.应用，适用 | |
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warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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gratitude
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| adj.感激，感谢 | |
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followers
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| 追随者( follower的名词复数 )； 用户； 契据的附面； 从动件 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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bent
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| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
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redressing
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| v.改正( redress的现在分词 )；重加权衡；恢复平衡 | |
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redress
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| n.赔偿，救济，矫正；v.纠正，匡正，革除 | |
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vow
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| n.誓(言)，誓约；v.起誓，立誓 | |
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knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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secluded
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| adj.与世隔绝的；隐退的；偏僻的v.使隔开，使隐退( seclude的过去式和过去分词) | |
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abodes
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| 住所( abode的名词复数 )； 公寓； （在某地的）暂住； 逗留 | |
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patronage
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| n.赞助，支援，援助；光顾，捧场 | |
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hardy
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| adj.勇敢的，果断的，吃苦的；耐寒的 | |
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legitimate
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| adj.合法的，合理的，合乎逻辑的；v.使合法 | |
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perverted
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| adj.不正当的v.滥用( pervert的过去式和过去分词 )；腐蚀；败坏；使堕落 | |
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inflict
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| vt.(on)把…强加给，使遭受，使承担 | |
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fabulous
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| adj.极好的；极为巨大的；寓言中的，传说中的 | |
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knightly
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| adj. 骑士般的 adv. 骑士般地 | |
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dungeons
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| n.地牢( dungeon的名词复数 ) | |
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ransomed
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| 付赎金救人，赎金( ransom的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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fervid
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| adj.热情的；炽热的 | |
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magistrate
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| n.地方行政官，地方法官，治安官 | |
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picturesque
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| adj.美丽如画的，（语言）生动的，绘声绘色的 | |
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ken
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| n.视野，知识领域 | |
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hood
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| n.头巾，兜帽，覆盖；v.罩上，以头巾覆盖 | |
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arduous
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| adj.艰苦的，费力的，陡峭的 | |
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reverence
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| n.敬畏，尊敬，尊严；Reverence:对某些基督教神职人员的尊称；v.尊敬，敬畏，崇敬 | |
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initiated
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| n. 创始人 adj. 新加入的 vt. 开始，创始，启蒙，介绍加入 | |
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50
harp
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| n.竖琴；天琴座 | |
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51
tilting
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| 倾斜，倾卸 | |
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52
laborious
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| adj.吃力的，努力的，不流畅 | |
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53
labor
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| n.劳动，努力，工作，劳工；分娩；vi.劳动，努力，苦干；vt.详细分析；麻烦 | |
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54
vault
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| n.拱形圆顶，地窖，地下室 | |
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55
encumbrance
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| n.妨碍物，累赘 | |
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56
wrestle
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| vi.摔跤，角力；搏斗；全力对付 | |
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57
wield
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| vt.行使，运用，支配；挥，使用(武器等) | |
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58
refinements
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| n.（生活）风雅；精炼( refinement的名词复数 )；改良品；细微的改良；优雅或高贵的动作 | |
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59
thronged
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| v.成群，挤满( throng的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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60
bestowed
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| 赠给，授予( bestow的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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61
dire
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| adj.可怕的，悲惨的，阴惨的，极端的 | |
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62
awe
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| n.敬畏，惊惧；vt.使敬畏，使惊惧 | |
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63
initiation
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| n.开始 | |
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64
motives
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| n.动机，目的( motive的名词复数 ) | |
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65
valiant
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| adj.勇敢的，英勇的；n.勇士，勇敢的人 | |
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courteous
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| adj.彬彬有礼的，客气的 | |
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67
villains
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| n.恶棍( villain的名词复数 )；罪犯；（小说、戏剧等中的）反面人物；淘气鬼 | |
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68
vassals
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| n.奴仆( vassal的名词复数 )；（封建时代）诸侯；从属者；下属 | |
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69
fixed
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| adj.固定的，不变的，准备好的；(计算机)固定的 | |
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70
clergy
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| n.[总称]牧师，神职人员 | |
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71
exemption
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| n.豁免，免税额，免除 | |
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72
pageant
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| n.壮观的游行；露天历史剧 | |
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73
gaudy
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| adj.华而不实的；俗丽的 | |
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74
chivalrous
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| adj.武士精神的；对女人彬彬有礼的 | |
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75
condemned
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| adj. 被责难的, 被宣告有罪的 动词condemn的过去式和过去分词 | |
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76
antagonists
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| 对立[对抗] 者，对手，敌手( antagonist的名词复数 )； 对抗肌； 对抗药 | |
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77
conqueror
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| n.征服者，胜利者 | |
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78
feats
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| 功绩，伟业，技艺( feat的名词复数 ) | |
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79
varied
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| adj.多样的，多变化的 | |
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80
tapestry
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| n.挂毯，丰富多采的画面 | |
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81
wont
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| adj.习惯于；v.习惯；n.习惯 | |
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82
bracelets
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| n.手镯，臂镯( bracelet的名词复数 ) | |
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83
appendages
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| n.附属物( appendage的名词复数 )；依附的人；附属器官；附属肢体（如臂、腿、尾等） | |
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84
donor
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| n.捐献者；赠送人；(组织、器官等的)供体 | |
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exertions
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| n.努力( exertion的名词复数 )；费力；（能力、权力等的）运用；行使 | |
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86
mesh
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| n.网孔，网丝，陷阱；vt.以网捕捉，啮合，匹配；vi.适合； [计算机]网络 | |
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87
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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88
lining
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| n.衬里，衬料 | |
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89
insufficient
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| adj.(for，of)不足的，不够的 | |
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90
efface
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| v.擦掉，抹去 | |
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91
meshes
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| 网孔( mesh的名词复数 )； 网状物； 陷阱； 困境 | |
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riveted
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| 铆接( rivet的过去式和过去分词 )； 把…固定住； 吸引； 引起某人的注意 | |
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93
underneath
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| adj.在...下面，在...底下；adv.在下面 | |
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94
supplanted
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| 把…排挤掉，取代( supplant的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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hoop
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| n.（篮球）篮圈，篮 | |
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96
contrived
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| adj.不自然的，做作的；虚构的 | |
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97
groove
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| n.沟，槽；凹线，（刻出的）线条，习惯 | |
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pivot
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| v.在枢轴上转动；装枢轴，枢轴；adj.枢轴的 | |
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99
overthrown
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| adj. 打翻的，推倒的，倾覆的 动词overthrow的过去分词 | |
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100
undo
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| vt.解开，松开；取消，撤销 | |
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101
belly
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| n.肚子，腹部；(像肚子一样)鼓起的部分，膛 | |
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102
dagger
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| n.匕首，短剑，剑号 | |
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103
monopolized
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| v.垄断( monopolize的过去式和过去分词 )；独占；专卖；专营 | |
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104
wondrous
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| adj.令人惊奇的，奇妙的；adv.惊人地；异乎寻常地；令人惊叹地 | |
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105
predecessors
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| n.前任( predecessor的名词复数 )；前辈；（被取代的）原有事物；前身 | |
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106
retailed
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| vt.零售（retail的过去式与过去分词形式） | |
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107
genealogies
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| n.系谱，家系，宗谱( genealogy的名词复数 ) | |
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108
distinguished
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| adj.卓越的，杰出的，著名的 | |
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109
enervating
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| v.使衰弱，使失去活力( enervate的现在分词 ) | |
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110
maritime
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| adj.海的，海事的，航海的，近海的，沿海的 | |
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111
influx
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| n.流入，注入 | |
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112
soften
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| v.(使)变柔软；(使)变柔和 | |
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113
admiration
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| n.钦佩，赞美，羡慕 | |
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114
fable
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| n.寓言；童话；神话 | |
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115
ransacked
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| v.彻底搜查( ransack的过去式和过去分词 )；抢劫，掠夺 | |
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116
piety
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| n.虔诚，虔敬 | |
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117
pretensions
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| 自称( pretension的名词复数 )； 自命不凡； 要求； 权力 | |
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118
genealogy
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| n.家系，宗谱 | |
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119
pompous
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| adj.傲慢的，自大的；夸大的；豪华的 | |
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120
bishop
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| n.主教，（国际象棋）象 | |
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121
immortality
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| n.不死，不朽 | |
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122
monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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123
embellish
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| v.装饰，布置；给…添加细节，润饰 | |
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124
imprisoned
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| 下狱，监禁( imprison的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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125
ecclesiastics
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| n.神职者，教会，牧师( ecclesiastic的名词复数 ) | |
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126
monarchs
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| 君主，帝王( monarch的名词复数 ) | |
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127
warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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128
specimen
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| n.样本，标本 | |
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129
discrediting
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| 使不相信( discredit的现在分词 )； 使怀疑； 败坏…的名声； 拒绝相信 | |
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130
forfeited
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| （因违反协议、犯规、受罚等）丧失，失去( forfeit的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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131
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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132
celebrated
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| adj.有名的，声誉卓著的 | |
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133
adherence
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| n.信奉，依附，坚持，固着 | |
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134
narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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135
worthy
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| adj.(of)值得的，配得上的；有价值的 | |
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