Before the coming of St. Patrick there certainly existed images, or, as they are called by the ancient authorities, "idols7" in Ireland, at which or to which sacrifice used to be offered, probably with a view to propitiating9 the earth-gods, possibly the Tuatha De Danann, and securing good harvests and abundant kine. From sacrificial rites spring, almost of necessity, a sacrificial caste, and this caste—the druids—had arrived at a high state of organisation10 in Gaul and Britain when observed by C?sar, and did not hesitate to sacrifice whole hecatombs of human beings. "They think," said C?sar, "that unless a man's life is rendered up for a man's life, the will of the immortal11 God cannot be satisfied, and they have sacrifices of this kind as a national institution."
There appears nothing, however, that I am aware of, to connect the druids in Ireland with human sacrifice, although such sacrifice appears to have been offered. The druids, however, appear to have had private idols of their own. We find a very minute account in the tenth-century glossary12 of King Cormac as to how a poet performed incantations with his[Pg 84] idols. The word "poet" is here apparently13 equivalent to druid, as the word "druid" like the Latin vates is frequently a synonym14 for "poet." Here is how the glossary explains the incantation called Imbas Forosnai:—
"This," says the ancient lexicographer15, "describes to the poet whatsoever16 thing he wishes to discover,[2] and this is the manner in which it is performed. The poet chews a bit of the raw red flesh of a pig, a dog, or a cat, and then retires with it to his own bed behind the door,[3] where he pronounces an oration17 over it and offers it to his idol8 gods. He then invokes18 the idols, and if he has not received the illumination before the next day, he pronounces incantations upon his two palms and takes his idol gods unto him [into his bed] in order that he may not be interrupted in his sleep. He then places his two hands upon his two cheeks and falls asleep. He is then watched so that he be not stirred nor interrupted by any one until everything that he seeks be revealed to him at the end of a nomad,[4] or two or three, or as long as he continues at his offering, and hence it is that this ceremony is called Imbas, that is, the two hands upon him crosswise, that is, a hand over and a hand hither upon his cheeks. And St. Patrick prohibited this ceremony, because it is a species of Teinm Laeghdha,[5] that is, he declared that any one who performed it should have no place in heaven or on earth."
These were apparently the private images of the druid himself which are spoken of, but there certainly existed public idols in pagan Ireland before the evangelisation of the island. St. Patrick himself, in his "Confession," asserts that before his coming the Irish worshipped idols—idola et immunda—and we have preserved to us more than one account of the great gold-covered image which was set up in Moy Slaught[6] [i.e., the[Pg 85] Plain of Adoration], believed to be in the present county of Cavan. It stood there surrounded by twelve lesser20 idols ornamented21 with brass22, and may possibly have been regarded as a sun-god ruling over the twelve seasons. It was called the Crom Cruach or Cenn Cruach,[7] and certain Irish tribes considered it their special tutelary23 deity24. The Dinnseanchas, or explanation of the name of Moy Slaught, calls it "the King Idol of Erin," "and around him were twelve idols made of stones, but he was of gold. Until Patrick's advent25 he was the god of every folk that colonised Ireland. To him they used to offer the firstlings of every issue and the chief scions26 of every clan27;" and the ancient poem in the Book of Leinster declares that it was "a high idol with many fights, which was named the Cromm Cruaich."[8]
The poem tells us that "the brave Gaels used to worship it, and would never ask from it satisfaction as to their portion of the hard world without paying it tribute."
[Pg 86]
"He was their God,[9]
The withered28 Cromm with many mists,
The people whom he shook over every harbour,
The everlasting29 kingdom they shall not have.
To him without glory
Would they kill their piteous wailing30 offspring,
With much wailing and peril31
To pour their blood around Cromm Cruaich.
Milk and corn
They would ask from him speedily
In return for one-third of their healthy issue,
Great was the horror and scare of him.
To him
Noble Gaels would prostrate32 themselves,
From the worship of him, with many manslaughters
The Plain is called Moy Sleacht.
* * * * *
In their ranks (stood)
Four times three stone idols
To bitterly beguile33 the hosts,
The figure of Cromm was made of gold.
Since the rule
Of Heremon,[10] the noble man of grace,
There was worshipping of stones
Until the coming of good Patrick of Macha [Ardmagh]."
There is not the slightest reason to distrust this evidence as far as the existence of Crom Cruach goes.
[Pg 87]
"This particular tradition," says Mr. Nutt, "like the majority of those contained in it [the Dinnseanchas] must be of pre-Christian34 origin. It would have been quite impossible for a Christian monk35 to have invented such a story, and we may accept it as a perfectly36 genuine bit of information respecting the ritual side of insular37 Celtic religion."[11]
St. Patrick overthrew38 this idol, according both to the poem in the Book of Leinster and the early lives of the saint. The life says that when St. Patrick cursed Crom the ground opened and swallowed up the twelve lesser idols as far as their heads, which, as Rhys acutely observes, shows that when the early Irish lives of the saint were written the pagan sanctuary39 had so fallen into decay, that only the heads of the lesser idols remained above ground, while he thinks that it was at this time from its bent40 attitude and decayed appearance the idol was called Crom, "the Stooper."[12] There is, however, no[Pg 88] apparent or recorded connection between this idol and the druids, nor do the druids appear to have fulfilled the functions of a public priesthood in Ireland, and the Introduction to the Seanchas Mór, or ancient Book of the Brehon Laws, distinctly says that, "until Patrick came only three classes of persons were permitted to speak in public in Erin, a chronicler to relate events and to tell stories, a poet to eulogise and to satirise, and a Brehon to pass sentence from precedents41 and commentaries," thus noticeably omitting all mention of the druids as a public body.
The idol Crom with his twelve subordinates may very well have represented the sun, upon whom both season and crops and consequently the life both of man and beast depend. The gods to whom the early Irish seem to have sacrificed, were no doubt, as I think Mr. Nutt has shown, agricultural powers, the lords of life and growth, and with these the sun, who is at the root of all growth, was intimately connected, "the object of that worship was to promote increase, the theory of worship was—life for life."[13] That the Irish swore by the sun and the moon and the elements is certain; the oath is quoted in many places,[14][Pg 89] and St. Patrick appears to allude43 to sun-worship in that passage of his "Confession," where he says, "that sun which we see rising daily at His bidding for our sake, it will never reign44, and its splendour will not last for ever, but those who adore it will perish miserably45 for all eternity46:" this is also borne out by the passage in Cormac's Glossary of the images the pagans used to adore, "as, for instance, the form or figure of the sun on the altar."[15]
Another phase of the druidic character seems to have been that he was looked upon as an intermediary between man and the invisible powers. In the story which tells us how Midir the De Danann, carries off the king's wife, we are informed that the druid's counsel is sought as to how to recover her, which he at last is enabled to do "through his keys of science and Ogam," after a year's searching.
The druids are represented as carrying wands of yew47, but there is nothing in Irish literature, so far as I am aware of, about their connection with the oak, from the Greek for which, δρ??,[16] they are popularly supposed to derive49 their name. They used to be consulted as soothsayers upon the probable success of expeditions, as by Cormac mac Art, when he was thinking about extorting50 a double tribute from Munster,[17] and by Dáthi, the last pagan king of Ireland, when[Pg 90] setting out upon his expedition abroad; they took auguries51 by birds, they could cause magic showers and fires, they observed stars and clouds, they told lucky days,[18] they had ordeals52 of their own,[19] but, above all, they appear to have been tutors or teachers.
Another druidic practice which is mentioned in Cormac's Glossary is more fully54 treated of by Keating, in his account of the great pagan convention at Uisneach, a hill in Meath, "where the men of Ireland were wont55 to exchange their goods and their wares56 and other jewels." This convention was held in the month of May,
"And at it they were wont to make a sacrifice to the arch-god, whom they adored, whose name was Bél. It was likewise their usage to light two fires to Bél in every district in Ireland at this season, and to drive a pair of each herd57 of cattle that the district contained between these two fires, as a preservative58, to guard them against all the diseases of that year. It is from that fire thus made that the day on which the noble feast of the apostles Peter and James is held has been called Bealtaine [in Scotch59 Beltane], i.e., Bél's fire."
Cormac, however, says nothing about a god named Bél—who, indeed, is only once mentioned elsewhere, so far as I know[20]—but explains the name as if it were Bil-tene, "goodly fire," from the fires which the druids made on that day through which to drive the cattle.[21]
[Pg 91]
Post-Christian accounts of the druids as a whole, and or individual druids differ widely. The notes on St. Patrick, in the Book of Armagh, present them in the worst possible light as wicked wizards and augurs60 and people of incantations,[22] and the Latin lives of the Saints nearly always call them "magi." Yet they are admitted to have been able to prophecy. King Laoghaire's [Leary's] druids prophesied61 to him three years before the arrival of Patrick that "adze-heads would come over a furious sea,"
"Their mantles62 hole-headed,
Their staves crook-headed,
Their tables in the east of their houses."[23]
In the lives of the early saints we find some of them on fair terms with the druids. Columcille's first teacher was a druid, whom his mother consulted about him. It is true that in the Lismore text he is called not a druid but a fáidh, i.e., vates or prophet, but this only confirms the close connection between druid, prophet, and teacher, for his proceedings63 are distinctly druidical, the account runs: "Now when the time for reading came to him the cleric went to a certain prophet[Pg 92] who abode65 in the land to ask him when the boy ought to begin. When the prophet had scanned the sky, he said 'Write an alphabet for him now.' The alphabet was written on a cake, and Columcille consumed the cake in this wise, half to the east of a water, and half to the west of a water. Said the prophet through grace of prophecy, 'So shall this child's territory be, half to the east of the sea, and half to the west of the sea.'"[24] Columcille himself is said to have composed a poem beginning, "My Druid is the son of God." Another druid prophesies66 of St. Brigit before she was born,[25] and other instances connecting the early saints with druids are to be found in their lives, which at least show that there existed a sufficient number of persons in early Christian Ireland who did not consider the druids wholly bad, but believed that they could prophecy, at least in the interests of the saints.
From what we have said, it is evident that there were always druids in Ireland, and that they were personages of great importance. But it is not clear that they were an organised body like the druids of Gaul,[26] or like the Bardic67 body in later times in Ireland, nor is it clear what their exact functions were, but they seem to have been teachers above everything else. It is clear, too, that the ancient Irish—at least in some cases—possessed and worshipped images. That they sacrificed to them, and even offered up human beings, is by no means so certain, the evidence for this resting upon the single passage in the Dinnseanchas, and the poem (in a modern style of metre) in the Book of Leinster, which we have just given, and which though it is evidence for the existence of the idol Crom Cruach, known to us already from other sources, may possibly have had the trait of human sacrifice added as a heightening touch by a Christian chronicler familiar with the[Pg 93] accounts of Moloch and Ashtar?th. The complete silence which, outside of these passages,[27] exists in all Irish literature as to a proceeding64 so terrifying to the popular imagination, seems to me a proof that if human sacrifice was ever resorted to at all, it had fallen into abeyance68 before the landing of the Christian missionaries69.
********
[1] C?sar's words are worth repeating. He says that there were two sorts of men in Gaul both numerous and honoured—the knights70 and the Druids, "equites et druides," because the people counted for nothing and took the initiative in nothing. As for the Druids, he says: "Rebus71 divinis intersunt, sacrificia publica et privata procurant, religiones interpretantur ... nam fere de omnibus controversiis publicis privatisque constituunt, et si quod est admissum facinus, si c?des facta, si de hereditate, de finibus controversia est iidem decernunt pr?mia, p?nasque constituunt." All this seems very like the duties of the Irish Druids, but not what follows: "si qui, aut privatus aut populus eorum decreto non stetit, sacrificiis interdicunt. H?c p?na apud eos est gravissima." Nor do the Irish appear to have had the over-Druid whom C?sar talks of. (See "De Bello Gallico," book vi. chaps. 13, 14).
[2] "Cach raet bid maith lasin filid agus bud adla(i)c dó do fhaillsiugad."
[3] Thus O'Curry ("Miscellany of the Celtic Society," vol. ii. p. 208); but Stokes translates, "he puts it then on the flagstone behind the door." See the original in Cormac's Glossary under "Himbas." I have not O'Donovan's translation by me.
[4] O'Curry translates this by "day." It is at present curiously72 used, I suppose by a kind of confusion with the English "moment," in the sense of a minute or other short measure of time. At least I have often heard it so used.
[5] Another species of incantation mentioned in the glossary.
[6] In Irish Magh Sleacht.
[7] In O'Donovan's fragmentary manuscript catalogue of the Irish MSS., in Trinity College, Dublin, he writes apropos73 of the life of St. Maedhog or Mogue, contained in H. 2, 6: "I searched the two Brefneys for the situation of Moy Sleacht on which stood the chief pagan Irish idol Crom Cruach, but have failed, being misled by Lanigan, who had been misled by Seward, who had been blinded by the impostor Beauford, who placed this plain in the county of Leitrim. It can, however, be proved from this life of St. Mogue that Magh Sleacht was that level part of the Barony of Tullaghan (in the county of Cavan) in which the island of Inis Breaghwee (now Mogue's Island), the church of Templeport, and the little village of Ballymagauran are situated74." I have been told that O'Donovan afterwards found reason to doubt the correctness of this identification.
[8] M. de Jubainville connects the name with cru (Latin, cruor), "blood," translating Cenn Cruach by tête sanglante and Crom Cruach by Courbe sanglante, or Croissant ensanglanté; but Rhys connects it with Cruach, "a reek48" or "mound," as in Croagh-Patrick, St. Patrick's Reek. Cenn Cruach is evidently the same name as the Roman station Penno-Crucium, in the present county of Stafford, the Irish "c" being as usual the equivalent of the British "p." This would make it appear that Cromm was no local idol. Rhys thinks it got its name Crom Cruach, "the stooped one of the mound," from its bent attitude in the days of its decadence75.
[9] Observe the exquisite76 and complicated metre of this in the original, a proof, I think, that the lines are not very ancient. It has been edited from the Book of Leinster, Book of Ballymote, Book of Lecan, and Rennes MS., at vol. i. p. 301 of Mr. Nutt's "Voyage of Bran," by Dr. Kuno Meyer—
"Ba hé a nDia
In Cromm Crín co n-immud cia
In lucht ro Craith ós each Cúan
In flaithius Búan nochos Bia."
[10] I.e., Eremon or Erimon, Son of Milesius, see above, p. 59.
[11] The details of this idol, and, above all, the connection in which it stands to the mythic culture-king Tighearnmas, could not, as Mr. Nutt well remarks, have been invented by a Christian monk; but nothing is more likely, it appears to me, than that such a one, familiar with the idol rites of Jud?a from the Old Testament78, may have added the embellishing79 trait of the sacrifice of "the firstlings of every issue."
[12] Sir Samuel Ferguson's admirable poem upon the death of Cormac refers to the priests of the idol, but there is no recorded evidence of any such priesthood—
"Crom Cruach and his sub-gods twelve,
Saith Cormac, are but carven treene.
The axe80 that made them haft or helve,
Had worthier81 of your worship been.
But he who made the tree to grow,
And hid in earth the iron stone,
And made the man with mind to know
The axe's use is God alone.
Anon to priests of Crom were brought—
Where girded in their service dread82,
They ministered in red Moy Slaught—
Word of the words King Cormac said.
They loosed their curse against the king,
They cursed him in his flesh and bones,
And daily in their mystic ring
They turned the maledictive83 stones."
D'Arcy McGee also refers to Crom Cruach in terms almost equally poetic84, but equally unauthorised:—
"Their ocean-god was Manannán Mac Lir,
Whose angry lips
In their white foam85 full often would inter19
Whole fleets of ships.
Crom was their day-god and their thunderer,
Made morning and eclipse;
Bride was their queen of song, and unto her
They prayed with fire-touched lips!"
[13] Nutt's "Voyage of Bran," vol. ii. p. 250.
[14] The elements are recorded as having slain86 King Laoghaire because he broke the oath he had made by them. In the Lament87 for Patrick Sarsfield as late as the seventeenth century, the unknown poet cries:
"Go mbeannaigh' an ghealach gheal's an ghrian duit,
O thug tu an lá as láimh Righ 'Liam leat."
I.e., May the white Moon and the Sun bless you, since thou hast taken the Day out of the hand of King William.
And a little later we find the harper Carolan swearing "by the light of the sun."
"Molann gach aon an té bhíos cráibhtheach cóir,
Agus molann gach aon an té bhíos páirteach leó,
Dar solas na gréine sé mo rádh go deó
Go molfad gan spéis gan bhréig an t-áth mar77 geóbhad."
[15] See above, ch. V, note 18.
[16] The genitive of drai, the modern draoi (dhree) is druad, from whence no doubt the Latin druidis. It was Pliny who first derived88 the name from δρ??. The word with a somewhat altered meaning was in use till recently. The wise men from the East are called druids (draoithe) in O'Donnell's translation of the New Testament. The modern word for enchantment89 (draoidheacht) is literally90 "druidism," but an enchanter is usually draoidheadóir, a derivation from draoi.
[17] See above, ch. III, note 14.
[18] Cathbad, Conor mac Nessa's Druid, foretold91 that any one who took arms—the Irish equivalent for knighthood—upon a certain day, would become famous for ever, but would enjoy only a brief life. It was Cuchulain who assumed arms upon that day.
[19] O'Curry quotes a druidic ordeal53 from the MS. marked H. 3. 17 in Trinity College, Dublin. A woman to clear her character has to rub her tongue to a red-hot adze of bronze, which had been heated in a fire of blackthorn or rowan-tree.
[20] "Revue Celt.," vol. ii. p. 443. Is Bel to be equated92 with what Rhys calls in one place "the chthonian divinity Beli the Great," of the Britons, and in another "Beli the Great, the god of death and darkness"? (See "Hibbert Lectures," pp. 168 and 274.)
[21] The Christian priests, apparently unable to abolish these cattle ceremonies, took the harm out of them by transferring them to St. John's Eve, the 24th of June, where they are still observed in most districts of Ireland, and large fires built with bones in them, and occasionally cattle are driven through them or people leap over them. The cattle were probably driven through the fire as a kind of substitute for their sacrifice, and the bones burnt in the fire are probably a substitute for the bones of the cattle that should have been offered up. Hence the fires are called "teine cnámh" (bone-fire) in Irish, and bōne-fire (not b?nfire) in English.
[22] St. Patrick is there stated to have found around the king "scivos et magos et auruspices, incantatores et omnis mal? artis inventores."
[23] This means tonsured93 men, with cowls, with pastoral staves, with altars in the east end of the churches. The ancient Irish rann is very curious:—-
"Ticcat Tailcinn
Tar42 muir meirceann,
A mbruit toillceann.
A crainn croimceann.
A miasa n-airrter tige
Friscerat uile amen."
[24] I.e., one half in Ireland, the other in Scotland, alluding94 to his work at Iona and among the Picts.
[25] Stokes, "Lives of the Saints, from the Book of Lismore," p. 183.
[26] Who were, according to Ammianus Marcellinus, quoting the Greek historian, Timagenes, "sodaliciis adstricti consortiis."
[27] There is one other instance of human sacrifice mentioned in the Book of Ballymote, but this is recorded in connection with funeral games, and appears to have been an isolated95 piece of barbarity performed "that it might be a reproach to the Momonians for ever, and that it might be a trophy96 over them." Fiachra, a brother of Niall of the Nine Hostages, in the fourth century, carried off fifty hostages from Munster, and dying of his wounds, the hostages were buried alive with him, round his grave: "ro hadnaicead na geill tucadh a neass ocus siad beo im fheart Fiachra comba hail for Mumain do gres, ocus comba comrama forra." For another allusion2 to "human sacrifice" see O'Curry's "Manners and Customs," vol. i. p. dcxli and cccxxxiii. The "Dinnseanchas," quoted from above, is a topographical work explaining the origin of Irish place-names, and attributed to Amergin mac Amhalgaidh, poet to King Diarmuid mac Cearbaill, who lived in the sixth century. "There seems no reason," says Dr. Atkinson, in his preface to the facsimile Book of Leinster, "for disputing his claims to be regarded as the original compiler of a work of a similar character—the original nucleus97 is not now determinable." The oldest copy is the Book of Leinster and treats of nearly two hundred places and contains eighty-eight poems. The copy in the Book of Ballymote contains one hundred and thirty-nine, and that in the Book of Lecan even more. The total number of all the poems contained in the different copies is close on one hundred and seventy. The copy in the Bodleian Library was published by Whitley Stokes in "Folk-lore," December, 1892, and that in the Advocates Library, in Edinburgh, in "Folk-lore," December, 1893. The prose tales, from a copy at Rennes, he published in the "Revue Celtique," vols. xv. and xvi. An edition of the oldest copy in the Book of Leinster is still a desideratum. The whole work is full of interesting pagan allusions, but the different copies, in the case of many names, vary greatly and even contradict each other.
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allusions
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| 暗指，间接提到( allusion的名词复数 ) | |
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allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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mutual
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| adj.相互的，彼此的；共同的，共有的 | |
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latitude
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ascertain
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rites
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idols
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| 偶像( idol的名词复数 )； 受崇拜的人或物； 受到热爱和崇拜的人或物； 神像 | |
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idol
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propitiating
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| v.劝解，抚慰，使息怒( propitiate的现在分词 ) | |
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organisation
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immortal
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| adj.不朽的；永生的，不死的；神的 | |
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glossary
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| n.注释词表；术语汇编 | |
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apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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synonym
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lexicographer
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whatsoever
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oration
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invokes
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| v.援引( invoke的第三人称单数 )；行使（权利等）；祈求救助；恳求 | |
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inter
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lesser
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ornamented
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brass
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tutelary
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deity
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advent
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scions
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clan
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withered
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everlasting
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wailing
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| v.哭叫，哀号( wail的现在分词 )；沱 | |
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peril
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| n.(严重的)危险；危险的事物 | |
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prostrate
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| v.拜倒，平卧，衰竭；adj.拜倒的，平卧的，衰竭的 | |
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beguile
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| vt.欺骗，消遣 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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35
monk
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| n.和尚，僧侣，修道士 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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insular
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| adj.岛屿的，心胸狭窄的 | |
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38
overthrew
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| overthrow的过去式 | |
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sanctuary
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| n.圣所，圣堂，寺庙；禁猎区，保护区 | |
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bent
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| n.爱好，癖好；adj.弯的；决心的，一心的 | |
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41
precedents
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| 引用单元； 范例( precedent的名词复数 )； 先前出现的事例； 前例； 先例 | |
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42
tar
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| n.柏油，焦油；vt.涂或浇柏油/焦油于 | |
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allude
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| v.提及，暗指 | |
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reign
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| n.统治时期，统治，支配，盛行；v.占优势 | |
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miserably
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| adv.痛苦地；悲惨地；糟糕地；极度地 | |
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eternity
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| n.不朽，来世；永恒，无穷 | |
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yew
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| n.紫杉属树木 | |
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48
reek
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| v.发出臭气；n.恶臭 | |
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derive
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| v.取得；导出；引申；来自；源自；出自 | |
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50
extorting
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| v.敲诈( extort的现在分词 )；曲解 | |
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51
auguries
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| n.（古罗马）占卜术，占卜仪式( augury的名词复数 )；预兆 | |
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52
ordeals
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| n.严峻的考验，苦难的经历( ordeal的名词复数 ) | |
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ordeal
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| n.苦难经历，（尤指对品格、耐力的）严峻考验 | |
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fully
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| adv.完全地，全部地，彻底地；充分地 | |
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wont
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| adj.习惯于；v.习惯；n.习惯 | |
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wares
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| n. 货物, 商品 | |
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herd
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| n.兽群，牧群；vt.使集中，把…赶在一起 | |
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preservative
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| n.防腐剂；防腐料；保护料；预防药 | |
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scotch
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| n.伤口，刻痕；苏格兰威士忌酒；v.粉碎，消灭，阻止；adj.苏格兰(人)的 | |
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augurs
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| n.（古罗马的）占兆官( augur的名词复数 )；占卜师，预言者v.预示，预兆，预言( augur的第三人称单数 )；成为预兆；占卜 | |
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prophesied
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| v.预告，预言( prophesy的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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mantles
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| vt.&vi.覆盖（mantle的第三人称单数形式） | |
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proceedings
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| n.进程，过程，议程；诉讼(程序)；公报 | |
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proceeding
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| n.行动，进行，(pl.)会议录，学报 | |
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abode
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| n.住处，住所 | |
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prophesies
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| v.预告，预言( prophesy的第三人称单数 ) | |
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bardic
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| adj.吟游诗人的 | |
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abeyance
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| n.搁置，缓办，中止，产权未定 | |
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missionaries
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| n.传教士( missionary的名词复数 ) | |
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knights
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| 骑士； （中古时代的）武士( knight的名词复数 )； 骑士； 爵士； （国际象棋中）马 | |
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rebus
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| n.谜,画谜 | |
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curiously
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| adv.有求知欲地；好问地；奇特地 | |
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apropos
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| adv.恰好地；adj.恰当的；关于 | |
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situated
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| adj.坐落在...的，处于某种境地的 | |
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75
decadence
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| n.衰落，颓废 | |
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76
exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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mar
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| vt.破坏，毁坏，弄糟 | |
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testament
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| n.遗嘱；证明 | |
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79
embellishing
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| v.美化( embellish的现在分词 )；装饰；修饰；润色 | |
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80
axe
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| n.斧子；v.用斧头砍，削减 | |
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81
worthier
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| 应得某事物( worthy的比较级 )； 值得做某事； 可尊敬的； 有（某人或事物）的典型特征 | |
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82
dread
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| vt.担忧，忧虑；惧怕，不敢；n.担忧，畏惧 | |
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83
maledictive
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| Maledictive | |
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84
poetic
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| adj.富有诗意的，有诗人气质的，善于抒情的 | |
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85
foam
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| v./n.泡沫，起泡沫 | |
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86
slain
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
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lament
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| n.悲叹，悔恨，恸哭；v.哀悼，悔恨，悲叹 | |
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88
derived
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| vi.起源；由来；衍生；导出v.得到( derive的过去式和过去分词 )；（从…中）得到获得；源于；（从…中）提取 | |
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89
enchantment
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| n.迷惑，妖术，魅力 | |
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literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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91
foretold
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| v.预言，预示( foretell的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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92
equated
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| adj.换算的v.认为某事物（与另一事物）相等或相仿( equate的过去式和过去分词 )；相当于；等于；把（一事物） 和（另一事物）等同看待 | |
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93
tonsured
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| v.剃( tonsure的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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94
alluding
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| 提及，暗指( allude的现在分词 ) | |
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95
isolated
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| adj.与世隔绝的 | |
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96
trophy
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| n.优胜旗，奖品，奖杯，战胜品，纪念品 | |
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nucleus
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| n.核，核心，原子核 | |
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