There is, moreover, abundant evidence to show that the doctrine of metempsychosis was perfectly3 familiar to the pagan Irish, as may be seen in the stories of the births of Cuchulain, Etain, the Two Swineherds, Conall Cearnach, Tuan Mac Cairill, and Aedh Sláne.[3] But there is not, in our existing literature, any evidence that the belief was ever elevated into a philosophical4 doctrine of general acceptance, applicable to every one, still less that there was ever any ethical5 stress laid upon the belief in rebirth. It is only the mythological6 element in the belief in metempsychosis which has come down to us, and from which we ascertain7 that the pagan Irish believed that supernatural beings could become clothed in flesh and blood, could enter into women and be born again, could take different shapes and pass through different stages of existence, as fowls8, animals, or men. What the actual doctrinal form of the familiar idea was, or how far it influenced the popular mind, we have no means of knowing. But as Mr. Nutt well remarks, "early Irish religion must have possessed9 some ritual, and what in default of an apter term must be styled philosophical as well as mythological elements. Practically the latter alone have come down to us, and that in a romantic rather than in a strictly10 mythical11 form. Could we judge Greek religion aright if fragments of Apollodorus or the 'Metamorphoses' were all that survived of the literature it inspired?"[4] The most that can be said upon the subject, then, is that the doctrine of rebirth was actually taught with a deliberate ethical purpose—that of making men brave, since on being slain12 in this life they passed into a new one—amongst the Celts of Gaul, that it must have been familiar to the Britons between whose Druids and those of Gaul so close a resemblance subsisted13, and that the idea of rebirth which[Pg 96] forms part of half-a-dozen existing Irish sagas15, was perfectly familiar to the Irish Gael, although we have no evidence that it was connected with any ritual or taught as a deliberate doctrine.
In reconstructing from our existing literature the beliefs and religion of our ancestors, we can only do so incompletely, and with difficulty, from passages in the oldest sagas and other antique fragments, mostly of pagan origin, from allusions17 in very early poems, from scanty18 notices in the annals, and from the lives of early saints. The relatively19 rapid conversion20 of the island to Christianity in the fifth century, and the enthusiasm with which the new religion was received, militated against any full transmission of pagan belief or custom. We cannot now tell whether all the ancient Irish were imbued22 with the same religious beliefs, or whether these varied—as they probably did—from tribe to tribe. Probably all the Celtic races, even in their most backward state, believed—so far as they had any persuasion23 on the subject at all—in the immortality24 of the soul. Where the souls of the dead went to, when they were not reincarnated25, is not so clear. They certainly believed in a happy Other-World, peopled by a happy race, whither people were sometimes carried whilst still alive, and to gain which they either traversed the sea to the north-west, or else entered one of the Sidh [Shee] mounds27, or else again dived beneath the water.[5] In all cases, however, whatever the mode of access, the result is much the same. A beautiful country is discovered[Pg 97] where a happy race free from care, sickness, and death, spend the smiling hours in simple, sensuous28 pleasures.
There is a graphic29 description of this Elysium in the "Voyage of Bran," a poem evidently pagan,[6] and embodying30 purely31 pagan conceptions. A mysterious female, an emissary from the lovely land, appears in Bran's household one day, when the doors were closed and the house full of chiefs and princes, and no one knew whence she came, and she chanted to them twenty-eight quatrains describing the delights of the pleasant country.
"There is a distant isle32
Around which sea-horses glisten33,
A fair course against the white-swelling surge,
Four feet uphold it.[7]
Feet of white bronze under it,
Glittering through beautiful ages.
Lovely land throughout the world's age
On which the many blossoms drop.
An ancient tree there is with blossoms
On which birds call to the Hours.
'Tis in harmony, it is their wont34
To call together every Hour.
* * * * *
[Pg 98]
Unknown is wailing35 or treachery
In the familiar cultivated land,
There is nothing rough or harsh,
But sweet music striking on the ear.
Without grief, without sorrow, without death,
Without any sickness, without debility,
That is the sign of Emain,
Uncommon36, an equal marvel37.
A beauty of a wondrous38 land
Whose aspects are lovely,
Whose view is a fair country,
Incomparable in its haze39.
* * * * *
The sea washes the wave against the land,
Hair of crystal drops from its mane.
Wealth, treasures of every hue40,
Are in the gentle land, a beauty of freshness,
Listening to sweet music,
Drinking the best of wine.
Golden chariots on the sea plain
Rising with the tide to the sun,
Chariots of silver in the plain of sports
And of unblemished bronze.
* * * * *
At sunrise there will come
A fair man illumining level lands,
He rides upon the fair sea-washed plain,
He stirs the ocean till it is blood.
* * * * *
Then they row to the conspicuous42 stone
From which arise a hundred strains.
It sings a strain unto the host
Through long ages, it is not sad,
Its music swells43 with choruses of hundreds.
They look for neither decay nor death.
[Pg 99]
There will come happiness with health
To the land against which laughter peals44.
Into Imchiuin [the very calm place] at every season,
Will come everlasting45 joy.
It is a day of lasting46 weather
That showers [down] silver on the land,
A pure-white cliff in the verge47 of the sea
Which from the sun receives its heat."
Manannán, the Irish Neptune48, driving in a chariot across the sea, which to him was a flowery plain, meets Bran thereafter, and chants to him twenty-eight more verses about the lovely land of Moy Mell, "the Pleasant Plain," which the unknown lady had described, and they are couched in the same strain.
"Though [but] one rider is seen
In Moy Mell of many powers,
There are many steeds on its surface
Although thou seest them not.
* * * * *
A beautiful game, most delightful49
They play [sitting] at the luxurious50 wine,
Men and gentle women under a bush
Without sin, without crime.
* * * * *
A wood with blossom and fruit,
On which is the vine's veritable fragrance51;
A wood without decay, without defect,
On which are leaves of golden hue."
Then, prophesying52 of the death of Mongan, he sang—
"He will drink a drink from Loch Ló,
While he looks at the stream of blood;
The white hosts will take him under a wheel of clouds,
To the gathering53 where there is no sorrow."
I know of few things in literature comparable to this lovely description, at once so mystic and so sensuous, of the joys of[Pg 100] the other world. To my mind it breathes the very essence of Celtic glamour54, and is shot through and through with the Celtic love of form, beauty, landscape, company, and the society of woman. How exquisite55 the idea of being transported from this world to an isle around which sea-horses glisten, where from trees covered with blossoms the birds call in harmony to the Hours, a land whose haze is incomparable! What a touch! Where hair of crystal drops from the mane of the wave as it washes against the land; where the chariots of silver and of bronze assemble on the plain of sports, in the country against which laughter peals, and the day of lasting weather showers silver on the land. And then to play sitting at the luxurious wine—
"Men and gentle women under a bush
Without sin, without crime!"
I verily believe there is no Gael alive even now who would not in his heart of hearts let drift by him the Elysiums of Virgil, Dante, and Milton to grasp at the Moy Mell of the unknown Irish pagan.
In another perhaps equally ancient story, that of the elopement of Connla, son of Conn of the Hundred Battles,[8] with a lady who is a denizen56 of this mysterious land, we find the unknown visitor giving nearly the same account of it as that given to Bran.
"Whence hast thou come, O Lady?" said the Druid.
"I have come," said she, "from the lands of the living in which there is neither death, nor sin, nor strife;[9] we enjoy perpetual feasts without anxiety, and benevolence57 without contention58. A large Sidh [Shee, "fairy-mound"] is where we[Pg 101] dwell, so that it is hence we are called the Sidh [Shee] people."
The Druids appear, as I have already remarked, to have acted as intermediaries between the inhabitants of the other world and of this, and in the story of Connla one of them chants against the lady so that her voice was not heard, and he drives her away through his incantation. She comes back, however, at the end of a month, and again summons the prince.
"'Tis no lofty seat," she chanted, "upon which sits Connla amid short-lived mortals awaiting fearful death; the ever-living ones invite thee to be the ruler over the men of Tethra."
Conn of the Hundred Battles, who had overheard her speech, cried, "Call me the Druid; I see her tongue has been allowed her to-day [again]."
But she invisible to all save the prince replied to him—
"O Conn of the Hundred Battles, druidism is not loved, for little has it progressed to honour on the great Righteous Strand59, with its numerous, wondrous, various families."
After that she again invites the prince to follow her, saying—
"There is another land which it were well to seek.
I see the bright sun is descending60, though far off we shall reach it ere night.
'Tis the land that cheers the mind of every one that turns to me.
There is no race in it save only women and maidens62."
The prince is overcome with longing63. He leaps into her well-balanced, gleaming boat of pearl. Those who were left behind upon the strand "saw them dimly, as far as the sight of their eyes could reach. They sailed the sea away from them, and from that day to this have not been seen, and it is unknown where they went to."
In the fine story of Cuchulain's sick-bed,[10] in which though[Pg 102] the language of the text is not so ancient, the conceptions are equally pagan, the deserted64 wife of Manannán, the Irish Neptune, falls in love with the human warrior65, and invites him to the other-world to herself, through the medium of an ambassadress. Cuchulain sends his charioteer Laeg along with this mysterious ambassadress, that he may bring him word again, to what kind of land he is invited. Laeg, when he returns, repeats a glowing account of its beauty, which coincides closely with those given by the ladies who summoned Bran and Connla.
"There are at the western door,
In the place where the sun goes down,
A stud of steeds of the best of breeds
Of the grey and the golden brown.
There wave by the eastern door
Three crystal-crimson66 trees,
Whence the warbling bird all day is heard
On the wings of the perfumed breeze.
And before the central door
Is another, of gifts untold67.
All silvern-bright in the warm sunlight,
Its branches gleam like gold."[11]
* * * * *
In the saga14 of the Wooing of Etain we meet with what is substantially the same description. She is the wife of one of the Tuatha De Danann, is reborn as a mortal, and weds68 the king of Ireland. Her former husband, Midir, still loves her, follows her, and tries to win her back. She is unwilling69, and he chants to her this description of the land to which he would lure70 her.
[Pg 103]
"Come back to me, lady, to love and to shine
In the land that was thine in the long-ago,
Where of primrose71 hue is the golden hair
And the limbs are as fair as the wreathèd snow.
To the lakes of delight that no storm may curl,
Where the teeth are as pearl, the eyes as sloes,
Which alight, whenever they choose to seek,
On the bloom of a cheek where the foxglove glows.
Each brake is alive with the flowers of spring,
Whence the merles sing in their shy retreat;
Though sweet be the meadows of Innisfail,
Our beautiful vale is far more sweet.
Though pleasant the mead72 be of Innisfail,
More pleasant the ale of that land of mine,
A land of beauty, a land of truth,
Where youth shall never grow old or pine.
Fair rivers brighten the vale divine,—
There are choicest of wine and of mead therein.
And heroes handsome and women fair
Are in dalliance there without stain or sin.
From thence we see, though we be not seen,
We know what has been and shall be again,
And the cloud that was raised by the first man's fall,
Has concealed73 us all from the eyes of men.
Then come with me, lady, to joys untold,
And a circlet of gold on thy head shall be,
Banquets of milk and of wine most rare,
Thou shalt share, O lady, and share with me."[12]
[Pg 104]
The casual Christian21 allusion16 in the penultimate verse need not lead us astray, nor does it detract from the essentially74 pagan character of the rest, for throughout almost the whole of Irish literature the more distinctly or ferociously75 pagan any piece is, the more certain it is to have a Christian allusion added at the end as a make-weight. There is great ingenuity76 displayed in thus turning the pagan legend into a Christian homily by the addition of two lines suggesting that if men were not sinful, this beautiful pagan world and the beautiful forms that inhabited it would be visible to the human ken77. This was sufficient to disarm78 any hostility79 to the legend on the part of the Church.
From what we have said it is evident that the ancient Irish pagans believed in the possibility of rebirth, and founded many of their mythical sagas on the doctrine of metempsychosis, and that they had a highly ornate and fully-developed belief in a happy other-world or Elysium, to which living beings were sometimes carried off without going through the forms of death. But it is impossible to say whether rebirth with life in another world, for those whom the gods favoured, was taught as a doctrine or had any ethical significance attached to it by the druids of Ireland, as it most undoubtedly80 had by their cousins the druids of Gaul.
********
[1] "De Bello Gallico," vi. 14.
[2] See "Voyage of Bran," vol. ii. pp. 107-111, where all these passages have been lucidly81 collected by Mr. Nutt.
[3] All of these have been studied by Mr. Nutt, chap. xiv.
[4] Vol. ii. p. 121.
[5] In a large collection of nearly sixty folk-lore stories taken down in Irish from the lips of the peasantry, I find about five contain allusions to the belief in another world full of life under water, and about four in a life in the inside of the hills. The Hy Brasil type—that of finding the dead living again on an ocean island—is, so far as I have yet collected, quite unrepresented amongst them. An old Irish expression for dying is going "to the army of the dead," used by Déirdre in her lament82, and I find a variant83 of it so late as the beginning of this century, in a poem by Raftery, a blind musician of the county Mayo, who tells his countrymen to remember that they must go "to the meadow of the dead." See Raftery's "Aithreachas," in my "Religious Songs of Connacht," p. 266.
[6] Admirably translated by Kuno Meyer, who says "there are a large number of [word] forms in the 'Voyage of Bran,' as old as any to be found in the Wurzburg Glosses," and these Professor Thurneysen ascribes unhesitatingly to the seventh century. Zimmer also agrees that the piece is not later than the seventh century, that is, was first written down in the seventh century, but this is no criterion of the date of the original composition.
[7] I give Kuno Meyer's translation: in the original—
"Fil inis i n-eterchéin
Immataitnet gabra rein26
Rith find fris tóibgel tondat
Ceitheóir cossa foslongat."
In modern Irish the first two lines would run
"[Go] bhfuil inis i n-idir-chéin
Urn61 a dtaithnigeann gabhra réin."
Réin being the genitive of rian, "the sea," which, according to M. d'Arbois, the Gaels brought with them as a reminiscence of the Rhine, see above p. 10.
[8] Preserved in the Leabhar na h-Uidhre, a MS. compiled from older ones about the year 1100. See for this story "Gaelic Journal," vol. ii. p. 306.
[9] "Dodeochadsa for in ben a tirib beó áit inna bi bás na peccad na imorbus, i.e. [go], ndeachas-sa ar san bhean ó tíribh na mbeó, áit ann nach mbionn bás ná peacadh ná immarbhádh."
[10] Also contained in the Leabhar na h-Uidhre, a MS. transcribed84 about the year 1100.
[11] Literally85: "There are at the western door, in the place where the sun goes down, a stud of steeds with grey-speckled manes and another crimson brown. There are at the eastern door three ancient trees of crimson crystal, from which incessantly86 sing soft-toned birds. There is a tree in front of the court, it cannot be matched in harmony, a tree of silver against which the sun shines, like unto gold is its great sheen."
[12] A Befind in raga lim / I tír n-ingnad hifil rind / Is barr sobairche folt and / Is dath snechtu chorp coind. Literally: "O lady fair wouldst thou come with me to the wondrous land that is ours, where the hair is as the blossom of the primrose, where the tender body is as fair as snow. There shall be no grief there nor sorrow; white are the teeth there, black are the eyebrows87, a delight to the eye is the number of our host, and on every cheek is the hue of the foxglove.
"The crimson of the foxglove is in every brake, delightful to the eye [there] the blackbird's eggs. Although pleasant to behold88 are the plains of Innisfail, after frequenting the Great Plain rarely wouldst thou [remember them]. Though heady to thee the ale of Innisfail, headier the ale of the great land, a beauty of a land, the land I speak of. Youth never grows there into old age. Warm, sweet streams traverse the country with choicest mead and choicest wine, handsome persons [are there], without blemish41, conception without sin, without stain.
"We see every one on every side, and no one seeth us; the cloud of Adam's wrong-doing has concealed us from being numbered. O lady, if thou comest to my brave land, it is a crown of gold shall be upon thy head, fresh flesh of swine, banquets of new milk and ale shalt thou have with me then, fair lady."
Apropos89 of the Irish liking90 for swine's flesh, Stanihurst tells a good story: "'No meat,' says he, 'they fansie so much as porke, and the fatter the better. One of John O'Nel's [Shane O'Neill's] household demanded of his fellow whether beefe were better than porke. 'That,' quoth the other, 'is as intricate a question as to ask whether thou art better than O'Nell.'"
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1
doctrine
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| n.教义；主义；学说 | |
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doctrines
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| n.教条( doctrine的名词复数 )；教义；学说；（政府政策的）正式声明 | |
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perfectly
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| adv.完美地，无可非议地，彻底地 | |
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philosophical
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| adj.哲学家的，哲学上的，达观的 | |
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ethical
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| adj.伦理的，道德的，合乎道德的 | |
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mythological
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| adj.神话的 | |
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ascertain
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| vt.发现，确定，查明，弄清 | |
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8
fowls
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| 鸟( fowl的名词复数 )； 禽肉； 既不是这； 非驴非马 | |
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possessed
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| adj.疯狂的；拥有的，占有的 | |
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strictly
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| adv.严厉地，严格地；严密地 | |
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mythical
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| adj.神话的；虚构的；想像的 | |
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slain
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| 杀死，宰杀，杀戮( slay的过去分词 )； (slay的过去分词) | |
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subsisted
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| v.（靠很少的钱或食物）维持生活，生存下去( subsist的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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14
saga
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| n.(尤指中世纪北欧海盗的)故事，英雄传奇 | |
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sagas
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| n.萨迦（尤指古代挪威或冰岛讲述冒险经历和英雄业绩的长篇故事）( saga的名词复数 )；（讲述许多年间发生的事情的）长篇故事；一连串的事件（或经历）；一连串经历的讲述（或记述） | |
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allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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allusions
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| 暗指，间接提到( allusion的名词复数 ) | |
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scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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relatively
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conversion
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| n.转化，转换，转变 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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imbued
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| v.使（某人/某事）充满或激起（感情等）( imbue的过去式和过去分词 )；使充满；灌输；激发（强烈感情或品质等） | |
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persuasion
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| n.劝说；说服；持有某种信仰的宗派 | |
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immortality
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| n.不死，不朽 | |
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reincarnated
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| v.赋予新形体，使转世化身( reincarnate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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rein
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| n.疆绳，统治，支配；vt.以僵绳控制，统治 | |
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mounds
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| 土堆，土丘( mound的名词复数 )； 一大堆 | |
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sensuous
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| adj.激发美感的；感官的，感觉上的 | |
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graphic
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| adj.生动的，形象的，绘画的，文字的，图表的 | |
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embodying
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| v.表现( embody的现在分词 )；象征；包括；包含 | |
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purely
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isle
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glisten
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| vi.（光洁或湿润表面等）闪闪发光，闪闪发亮 | |
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wont
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| adj.习惯于；v.习惯；n.习惯 | |
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wailing
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| v.哭叫，哀号( wail的现在分词 )；沱 | |
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uncommon
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marvel
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| vi.(at)惊叹vt.感到惊异；n.令人惊异的事 | |
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wondrous
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| adj.令人惊奇的，奇妙的；adv.惊人地；异乎寻常地；令人惊叹地 | |
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haze
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| n.霾，烟雾；懵懂，迷糊；vi.(over)变模糊 | |
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hue
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| n.色度；色调；样子 | |
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blemish
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| v.损害；玷污；瑕疵，缺点 | |
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conspicuous
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| adj.明眼的，惹人注目的；炫耀的，摆阔气的 | |
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swells
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| 增强( swell的第三人称单数 )； 肿胀； （使）凸出； 充满（激情） | |
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peals
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| n.（声音大而持续或重复的）洪亮的响声( peal的名词复数 )；隆隆声；洪亮的钟声；钟乐v.（使）（钟等）鸣响，（雷等）发出隆隆声( peal的第三人称单数 ) | |
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everlasting
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| adj.永恒的，持久的，无止境的 | |
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lasting
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| adj.永久的，永恒的；vbl.持续，维持 | |
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verge
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| n.边，边缘；v.接近，濒临 | |
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Neptune
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| n.海王星 | |
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delightful
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| adj.令人高兴的，使人快乐的 | |
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luxurious
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| adj.精美而昂贵的；豪华的 | |
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fragrance
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| n.芬芳，香味，香气 | |
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prophesying
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| v.预告，预言( prophesy的现在分词 ) | |
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gathering
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| n.集会，聚会，聚集 | |
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glamour
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| n.魔力，魅力；vt.迷住 | |
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exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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denizen
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| n.居民，外籍居民 | |
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benevolence
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| n.慈悲，捐助 | |
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contention
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| n.争论，争辩，论战；论点，主张 | |
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strand
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| vt.使（船）搁浅，使（某人）困于（某地） | |
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descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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urn
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| n.（有座脚的）瓮；坟墓；骨灰瓮 | |
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maidens
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| 处女( maiden的名词复数 )； 少女； 未婚女子； （板球运动）未得分的一轮投球 | |
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longing
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| n.（for）渴望 | |
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deserted
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| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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crimson
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| n./adj.深(绯)红色(的)；vi.脸变绯红色 | |
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untold
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| adj.数不清的，无数的 | |
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weds
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| v.嫁，娶，（与…）结婚( wed的第三人称单数 ) | |
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unwilling
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| adj.不情愿的 | |
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lure
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| n.吸引人的东西，诱惑物；vt.引诱，吸引 | |
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primrose
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| n.樱草，最佳部分， | |
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mead
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| n.蜂蜜酒 | |
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concealed
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| a.隐藏的，隐蔽的 | |
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essentially
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| adv.本质上，实质上，基本上 | |
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ferociously
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| 野蛮地，残忍地 | |
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ingenuity
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| n.别出心裁；善于发明创造 | |
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ken
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| n.视野，知识领域 | |
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disarm
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| v.解除武装，回复平常的编制，缓和 | |
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hostility
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| n.敌对，敌意；抵制［pl.］交战，战争 | |
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undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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lucidly
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| adv.清透地，透明地 | |
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lament
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| n.悲叹，悔恨，恸哭；v.哀悼，悔恨，悲叹 | |
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variant
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| adj.不同的，变异的；n.变体，异体 | |
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transcribed
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| （用不同的录音手段）转录( transcribe的过去式和过去分词 )； 改编（乐曲）（以适应他种乐器或声部）； 抄写； 用音标标出（声音） | |
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literally
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| adv.照字面意义，逐字地；确实 | |
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incessantly
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| ad.不停地 | |
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eyebrows
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| 眉毛( eyebrow的名词复数 ) | |
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behold
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| v.看，注视，看到 | |
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apropos
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| adv.恰好地；adj.恰当的；关于 | |
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liking
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| n.爱好；嗜好；喜欢 | |
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