When we read such accounts as that, for example, in the Book of Ballymote, of Cormac mac Art, taking his seat at the assembly in Tara, all covered with gold and jewels, we must not set it down to the perfervid imagination of the chronicler without first consulting what Irish arch?ology has to say upon the point. The appearance of Cormac (king of Ireland in the third century, and perhaps greatest of pre-Christian3 monarchs), is thus described. "Beautiful," says the writer, quoting probably from ancient accounts now lost, "was the appearance of Cormac in that assembly, flowing and slightly curling was his golden hair. A red buckler with stars and animals of gold and fastenings of silver upon him. A crimson4[Pg 123] cloak in wide descending5 folds around him, fastened at his neck with precious stones. A torque of gold around his neck. A white shirt with a full collar, and intertwined with red gold thread upon him. A girdle of gold, inlaid with precious stones, was around him. Two wonderful shoes of gold, with golden loops upon his feet. Two spears with golden sockets6 in his hands, with many rivets7 of red bronze. And he was himself, besides, symmetrical and beautiful of form, without blemish8 or reproach." The abundance of gold ornament9 which Cormac is here represented as wearing, is no mere10 imagination of the writer's. It is founded upon the undoubted fact that of all countries in the West of Europe Ireland was pre-eminent for its wealth in gold. How much wealthier was Ireland than Great Britain may be imagined from the fact that while the collection in the British Museum of pre-historic gold from England, Scotland, and Wales together amounted a couple of years ago to some three dozen ounces, that in the Royal Irish Academy in Dublin weighs five hundred and seventy ounces. And yet the collection in the Academy contains only a small part of the gold-finds made in Ireland, for before 1861, when the new law about treasure-trove came into force, great numbers of gold objects are known to have been sold to the goldsmiths and melted down. The wealth of Ireland in gold—some of it found and smelted11 in the Wicklow mountains[1]—must have at an early period determined12[Pg 124] continental13 trade in its direction, and we have seen that Tacitus reported its harbours as being better known through trade than those of Great Britain, or, on the most unfavourable reading of the passage, as being "known by commerce and merchants."[2] This is also borne out by arch?ologists. Professor Montelius, who has traced a close connection in pre-historic times between Scandinavia and the West of Europe,[3] regards much of the pre-historic gold found in the northern countries as Irish. Speaking of certain gold ornaments14 found in Fünen, which show, according to him, marked Irish influence, he writes: "Gold ornaments like these have not been discovered elsewhere in Scandinavia, while a great number of similar ornaments have been found in the British Isles15, especially in Ireland, whose wealth of gold in the Bronze Age is amazing." Again he writes, "As certain of the gold[Pg 125] objects found in Denmark have been introduced demonstrably from the British Islands, probably from Ireland, the thought is obvious—is not a great part of the other gold objects found in Southern Scandinavia also of Irish origin, and of the Bronze Age there?... for this island [Ireland] was, during the Bronze Age, one of the lands of Europe richest in gold." "No other country in Europe possesses so much manufactured gold belonging to early and medi?val times," writes Mr. Ernest Smith.[4]
It is true that the Irish Celts, despite their mineral wealth, never minted coin, a want which has been adduced to prove a lack of civilisation16 on their part. But, as Mr. Coffey points out, coinage is a comparatively late invention; the Egyptians—for all their civilisation—never possessed17 a native coinage, and even such ancient trading cities as Carthage and Gades did not strike coins until a late period. "A little reflection," says Professor Ridgeway, "shows us that it has been quite possible for peoples to attain18 a high degree of civilisation without feeling any need of what are properly termed coins." "The absence of coinage," adds Mr. Coffey, "does not necessarily imply the absence of a currency system, and Professor Ridgeway has shown that the ancient Irish possessed a system of of currency or values, and a standard of weights."
A most interesting paper by Mr. Johnson, a Dublin jeweller, recently read before the Royal Irish Academy,[5] has[Pg 126] shown with the authority due to an expert, the marvellous skill with which the pre-historic Irish worked their gold, and the wealth of proper appliances which they must have possessed in order to turn out such unique and admirable results.[6]
The workmanship of Irish bronze articles is also very fine, and fully19 equal to that of Britain, while Greenwell considers their clay urns20 and food-vessels21 superior to the British. In Ireland he says the urns, "and especially the food vessels, are of better workmanship, and more elaborately and tastefully ornamented22 than in most parts of Britain. Many of the food vessels found in Argyleshire, and in other districts in the Southwest of Scotland, as might be perhaps expected, are very Irish in character, and may claim to be equally fine in taste and delicate in workmanship with those of Ireland."[7]
The brilliant appearance of Cormac mac Art when presiding over the assembly at Tara, covered with gold and jewels, receives enhanced credibility from the proofs of early Irish wealth and culture that I have just adduced. Let us glance at Tara itself, as it existed in the time of Cormac, and see whether arch?ology can throw any light upon the ancient accounts of that royal hill. It was round this hill that the great Féis, or assemblage of the men of all Ireland, took place triennially,[8] with a threefold purpose—to promulgate23 laws universally binding24 upon all Ireland; to test, purge25, and[Pg 127] sanction the annals and genealogies26 of Ireland, in the presence of all men, so that no untruth or flaw might creep in; and, finally, to register the same in the great national record, in later times called the Saltair of Tara, so that cases of disputed succession might be peacefully settled by reference to this central authoritative27 volume. The session of the men of Ireland thus convened28 took place on the third day before Samhain—November day—and ended the third day after it. We are told that Cormac, who presided over these assemblies,[9] had ten persons in constant waiting upon his person, who hardly ever left him. These were a prince of noble blood, a druid, a physician, a brehon, a bard29, a historian, a musician, and three stewards30. And Keating tells us that the very same arrangement was observed from Cormac's time—in the third century—to the death of Brian Boru in the eleventh, the only alteration31 being that a Christian priest was substituted for the druid.
To accommodate the chiefs and princes who came to the great Féis, Cormac built the renowned32 Teach Míodhchuarta [Toch Mee-coo-ar-ta] which was able to accommodate a thousand persons, and which was used at once for a house of assembly, a banqueting hall, and a sleeping abode33. We have two accounts of this hall and of the other monuments of Tara, written, the one in poetry, the other in verse, some nine hundred years ago. The prose of the Dinnseanchus describes accurately34 the lie of the building, "to the north-west of the eastern mound35." "The ruins of this house"—it lay in ruins then as now—"are thus situated36: the lower part to the north and the higher part to the south; and walls are raised about it to the east and to the west. The northern side of it is enclosed and small, the lie of it is north and south. It is in the form of a long house with twelve doors upon it, or fourteen, seven to the west and seven to the east. This was the great house of a thousand soldiers."[10] Keating, following[Pg 128] his ancient authorities, graphically37 describes the Tara assembly.
"The nobles," he writes, "both territorial38 lords and captains of bands of warriors39, were each man of them, always attended by his own proper shield-bearer. Again their banquet-halls were arranged in the following manner, to wit, they were long narrow buildings with tables arranged along both the opposite walls of the hall; then along these side walls there was placed a beam, in which were fixed41 numerous hooks (one over the seat destined42 for each of the nobles), and between every two of them there was but the breadth of one shield. Upon these hooks the shanachy hung up the shields of the nobles previously43 to their sitting down to the banquet, at which they all, both lords and captains, sat each beneath his own shield. However, the most honoured side of the house was occupied by the territorial lords, whilst the captains of warriors[11] were seated opposite to them at the other. The upper end of the hall was the place of the ollavs, while the lower end was assigned to the attendants and the officers in waiting. It was also prescribed that no man should be placed opposite another at the same table, but that all, both territorial lords and captains, should sit with their backs towards the wall, beneath their own shields. Again, they never admitted females into their banquet-halls; these had a hall of their own in which they were separately served. It was likewise the prescribed usage to clear out the banquet-hall previous to serving the assembled nobles therein. And no one was allowed to remain in the building but three, namely, a Shanachy and a bolsgaire [marshal or herald], and a trumpeter, the duty of which latter officer was to summon all the guests to the banquet-hall by the sound of his trumpet44-horn. He had to sound his horn three times. At the first blast the shield-bearers of the territorial chieftains assembled round the door of the hall, where the marshal received from them the shields of their lords, which he then, according to the directions of the shanachy, hung up each in its assigned place. The trumpeter then sounded his trumpet a second time, and the shield-bearers of the chieftains of the military bands assembled round the door of the banquet-hall, where the marshal received their lords' shields from them also, and hung them up at the other side of the hall according to the orders of the shanachy, and over the table of the warriors. The trumpeter sounded his trumpet the third time, and thereupon[Pg 129] both the nobles and the warrior40 chiefs entered the banquet-hall, and then each man sat down beneath his own shield, and thus were all contests for precedency avoided amongst them."
These accounts of the Dinnseanchus and of Keating, taken from authorities now lost, will be likely to receive additional credit when we know that the statements made nine hundred years ago, when Tara had even then lain in ruins for four centuries, have been verified in every essential particular by the officers of the Ordnance45 Survey. The statement in the Dinnseanchus made nearly nine hundred years ago that there were either six or seven doors on each side, shows the condition into which Tara had then fallen, one on each side being so obliterated46 that now, also, it is difficult to say whether it was a door or not. The length of the hall, according to Petrie's accurate measurements, was seven hundred and sixty feet, and its breadth was nearly ninety. There was a double row of benches on each side, running the entire length of the hall, which would give four rows of men if we remember that the guests were all seated on the same side of the tables, and allowing the ample room of three feet to each man, this would just give accommodation to a thousand. In the middle of the hall, running down all the way between the benches, there was a row of fires, and just above each fire was a spit descending from the roof, at which the joints48 were roasted. There is a ground plan of the building, in the Book of Leinster, and the figure of a cook is rudely drawn49 with his mouth open, and a ladle in his hand to baste50 the joint47. The king sat at the southern end of the hall, and the servants and retainers occupied the northern.
The banqueting-hall and all the other buildings at Tara were of wood, nor is the absence of stone buildings in itself a proof of low civilisation, since, in a country like Ireland, abounding51 in timber, wood could be made to answer every purpose—as in point of fact it does at this day over the greater part of America, and in all northern countries where forests[Pg 130] are numerous.[12] All or most Irish houses, down to the period of the Danish invasions, were constructed of wood, or of wood and clay mixed, or of clay and unmortared stones, and their strongholds were of wooden pallisades planted upon clay earth-works. This is the reason why so few remains of pre-historic buildings have come down to us, but it is no reason for believing that, as in Cormac's banquet-hall, rude palatial52 effects were not often produced. An interesting poem in the Dialogue of the Sages53, from the Book of Lismore, describes the house of the Lady Credé, said to have been a contemporary of Finn mac Cúmhail in the third century.[13] Though the poem may not itself be very old, it no doubt embodies54 many ancient truths, and is worth quoting from. A poet comes to woo the lady, and brings this poem with him. Finn accompanies him. When they reached her fortress55 "girls, yellow-haired, of marriageable age, showed on the balconies of her bowers56." The poet sang to her—
"Happy is the house in which she is
Between men and children and women,
Between druids and musical performers,
Between cupbearers and doorkeepers.[14]
[Pg 131]
Between equerries without fear,
And distributors who divide [the fare],
And, over all these, the command belongs
To Credé of the yellow hair.
* * * * *
The colour [of her house] is like the colour of lime,
Within it are couches and green rushes (?)
Within it are silks and blue mantles57,
Within it are red, gold, and crystal cups.
Of its many chambers58 the corner stones,
Are all of silver and yellow gold,
In faultless stripes its thatch59 is spread,
Of wings of brown, and of crimson red.
Two door posts of green I see,
Door not devoid60 of beauty,
Of carved silver, long has it been renowned,
In the lintel that is over the door.
Credé's chair is on your left hand,
The pleasantest of the pleasant it is,
All over, a blaze[15] of Alpine61 gold
At the foot of her beautiful couch.
A splendid couch in full array
Stands directly above the chair;
It was made by Tuile in the East,
Of yellow gold and precious stones.
There is another bed on your right hand
Of gold and silver without defect,
With curtains with soft [pillows],
With graceful62 rods of golden-bronze.
An hundred feet spans Credé's house
From one angle to the other,
And twenty feet are fully measured
In the breadth of its noble door.
Its portico63 is covered, too,
With wings of birds, both yellow and blue,
Its lawn in front and its well
Of crystal and of Carmogel."
[Pg 132]
The houses of the ancient Irish were either like Cormac's banqueting-hall and Credé's house, built quadrilaterally of felled trees or split planks64 planted upright in the earth, and thatched overhead, or else, as was most usually the case, they were cylindrical65 and made of wickerwork, with a cup-shaped roof, plastered with clay and whitewashed66. The magnificent dimensions of Cormac's palace, verified as they are by the careful measurements of the Ordnance Survey—a palace certainly erected67 in pagan times, since Tara was deserted68 for ever about the year 550—bear evidence, like our wealth of beautifully-wrought gold ornaments, and the superior workmanship of our surviving articles of bronze and clay, to a high degree of civilisation and culture amongst the pre-Christian Irish; I have here adduced them as bearing indirect evidence in favour of the probability that a people so civilised would have been likely to have seized on the invention of writing when they first came in contact with it, and would have kept their annals and genealogies all the more accurately from the very fact that they were evidently so advanced in other matters.
********
[1] In the Irish Annals gold is said to have been first smelted in Leinster. As late as the last century native gold was discovered on the confines of Wicklow and Wexford, and nuggets of 22, 18, 9, and 7 ounces are recorded as having been found there. Mr. Coffey quotes a most interesting account by a Mr. Weaver69, director of the works established there by the Irish Government before the union to look for gold. "The discovery of native gold in Ballinvally stream, at Croghan Kinshella," says Mr. Weaver, "was at first kept secret, but being divulged70, almost the whole population of the immediate71 neighbourhood flocked in to gather so rich a harvest, actually neglecting at the time the produce of their own fields. This happened about the autumn of the year 1796, when several hundreds of people might be seen daily assembled digging and searching for gold in the banks and bed of the stream. Considerable quantities were thus collected; this being as it subsequently proved the most productive spot; and the populace remained in undisturbed possession of the place for nearly six weeks, when Government determined to commence active operations.... Regular stream works were soon established, and up to the unhappy time of the rebellion in May, 1798, when the works were destroyed, Government had been fully reimbursed72 its advances; the produce of the undertaking73 having defrayed its own expenses and left a surplus in hand." The total amount of gold collected from this place in the last hundred years is valued at about ￡30,000. This particular spot had been probably overlooked, as Mr. Coffey remarks, by the searchers of earlier days, but no doubt other auriferous streams in the Wicklow mountains had given up their gold long since in pre-historic times to the ancient workers. (See Coffey's "Origins of Pre-historic Ornament in Ireland," p. 40.) Dr. Frazer, on the other hand, does not believe that any great part of the gold found in Ireland is indigenous74, and talks of Spain and South Russia, and gold plundered75 from Britain. But if this be the case, what an enormous pre-historic trade Ireland must have carried on, or what a powerful invader76 she must have been to come by such quantities of gold! (See Dr. Frazer's paper in R.I.A. Proceedings77, May, 1896). He has since supplemented this by another in the Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries in which he leans to the opinion that the Roman aurei, the coins plundered from the Britons, were the real source of Irish gold.
[2] See above, ch. II, note 11.
[3] "Verbindungen zwischen Skandinavien und dem westlichen Europa vor Christi Geburt" ("Archiv für Anthropologie," vol. xix., quoted by Mr. George Coffey in his "Origins of Pre-historic Ornament in Ireland," p. 63).
[4] "Notes on the Composition of Ancient Irish Gold and Silver Ornaments," by Ernest A. Smith, Assoc. R.S.M., F.C.S., Royal School of Mines, London, R. I. A. Transactions, May, 1896.
[5] "Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy," May, 1896. The tools and appliances necessary for producing the fine gold fibul? of a private collector, which Mr. Johnson examined, would be, he says, "a furnace, charcoal78, crucible79, mould for ingot, flux80, bellows81, several hammers, anvil82, swage anvil, swages, chisels83 for ornament, sectional tool for producing concentric rings." On one of them, he says, "there is a thickened edge and a beautiful moulded ornament on the outer side only, which quite puzzles one as to how it was produced without suggesting what are considered to be modern tools."
[6] A splendid find of gold ornaments made last year near the estuary84 of the Foyle river, of a golden model of a boat, evidently a votive offering, fitted with seat, mast, oars85, and punting poles, an exquisitely-wrought gold collar, decorated in relief with the most beautiful embossed work, torques, neckchains, etc., has been dated from internal evidences as work of the second century, the neck-chains being clearly provincial87 Roman work of that date. It is to be regretted that these exquisite86 articles have found their way to the British Museum, where they will be practically lost, instead of being added to the unique Irish collection in Dublin, to which they properly belong.
[7] Greenwell's "British Barrows," p. 62, quoted by Coffey.
[8] O'Donovan, in his preface to "The Book of Rights," gives some reasons for believing that it may have been held only septennially.
[9] See the Forus Feasa, p. 354 of O'Mahony's translation.
[10] See Petrie's "Antiquities88 of Tara Hill," p. 129.
[11] This seems a plain allusion89 to the Fenians, believed in Ireland to have been Cormac's militia90.
[12] Bede mentions, if I remember rightly—I forget where—a church built in the north of Britain, more Scotorum, robore secto, "of cleft91 oak, in the Irish fashion." The Columban churches were also of wood and wattles, contemporaneous with which were the beehive cells of uncemented stone, probably less warm and less comfortable than the thatched houses. "Ce que nous savons des anciens édifices irlandais," says M. Jubainville, "donne le droit d'affirmer que la plupart des constructions élevées à Emain macha [i.e., Emania, the capital of Ulster, and of the Red Branch heroes, two miles west of Armagh] pendant le période épique de l'histoire d'Irlande, ont d? être en bois; cependant il y avait été employé au moins quelques pierres." Angus the Culdee has a noble verse relating to the stones of Emania, the finest, perhaps, in the whole Saltair na rann, "Emania's palace has vanished, yet its stones still remain, but the Rome of the western world is now Glendaloch of the gatherings," "is Ruam iarthair beatha Gleann dalach dá locha."
[13] See "Silva Gadelica," p. 111, and O'Curry's MS. Materials, p. 595.
[14] Aibhinn in tech in atá,
Idir fira is maca is mná,
Idir dhruidh ocus aes ceóil,
Idir dhailiumh is dhoirseoir.
[15] Thus O'Curry translates casair as if he had taken it to be lasair. O'Grady translates "an overlay of Elpa's gold."
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remains
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| n.剩余物，残留物；遗体，遗迹 | |
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artistic
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| adj.艺术(家)的，美术(家)的；善于艺术创作的 | |
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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crimson
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| n./adj.深(绯)红色(的)；vi.脸变绯红色 | |
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descending
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| n. 下行 adj. 下降的 | |
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sockets
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| n.套接字，使应用程序能够读写与收发通讯协定(protocol)与资料的程序( Socket的名词复数 )；孔( socket的名词复数 )；（电器上的）插口；托座；凹穴 | |
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rivets
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blemish
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ornament
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| v.装饰，美化；n.装饰，装饰物 | |
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mere
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smelted
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| v.熔炼，提炼（矿石）( smelt的过去式和过去分词 )；合演( costar的过去式和过去分词 )；闻到；嗅出 | |
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determined
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continental
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| adj.大陆的，大陆性的，欧洲大陆的 | |
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ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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isles
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civilisation
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possessed
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attain
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fully
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urns
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vessels
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ornamented
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promulgate
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binding
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purge
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genealogies
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authoritative
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convened
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bard
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stewards
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| （轮船、飞机等的）乘务员( steward的名词复数 )； （俱乐部、旅馆、工会等的）管理员； （大型活动的）组织者； （私人家中的）管家 | |
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alteration
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renowned
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abode
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accurately
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mound
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graphically
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territorial
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warriors
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warrior
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fixed
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42
destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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previously
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| adv.以前，先前（地） | |
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44
trumpet
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| n.喇叭，喇叭声；v.吹喇叭，吹嘘 | |
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ordnance
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| n.大炮，军械 | |
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obliterated
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| v.除去( obliterate的过去式和过去分词 )；涂去；擦掉；彻底破坏或毁灭 | |
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joint
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| adj.联合的，共同的；n.关节，接合处；v.连接，贴合 | |
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joints
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| 接头( joint的名词复数 )； 关节； 公共场所（尤指价格低廉的饮食和娱乐场所） （非正式）； 一块烤肉 （英式英语） | |
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49
drawn
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| v.拖，拉，拔出；adj.憔悴的，紧张的 | |
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baste
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| v.殴打，公开责骂 | |
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abounding
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| adj.丰富的，大量的v.大量存在，充满，富于( abound的现在分词 ) | |
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52
palatial
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| adj.宫殿般的，宏伟的 | |
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53
sages
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| n.圣人( sage的名词复数 )；智者；哲人；鼠尾草（可用作调料） | |
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54
embodies
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| v.表现( embody的第三人称单数 )；象征；包括；包含 | |
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fortress
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| n.堡垒，防御工事 | |
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56
bowers
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| n.（女子的）卧室( bower的名词复数 )；船首锚；阴凉处；鞠躬的人 | |
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mantles
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| vt.&vi.覆盖（mantle的第三人称单数形式） | |
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chambers
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| n.房间( chamber的名词复数 )；（议会的）议院；卧室；会议厅 | |
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thatch
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| vt.用茅草覆盖…的顶部；n.茅草(屋) | |
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devoid
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| adj.全无的，缺乏的 | |
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alpine
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| adj.高山的；n.高山植物 | |
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graceful
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| adj.优美的，优雅的；得体的 | |
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portico
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| n.柱廊，门廊 | |
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planks
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| （厚）木板( plank的名词复数 )； 政纲条目，政策要点 | |
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cylindrical
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| adj.圆筒形的 | |
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whitewashed
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| 粉饰，美化，掩饰( whitewash的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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ERECTED
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| adj. 直立的，竖立的，笔直的 vt. 使 ... 直立，建立 | |
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deserted
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| adj.荒芜的，荒废的，无人的，被遗弃的 | |
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weaver
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| n.织布工；编织者 | |
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divulged
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| v.吐露，泄露( divulge的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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immediate
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| adj.立即的；直接的，最接近的；紧靠的 | |
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reimbursed
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| v.偿还，付还( reimburse的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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undertaking
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| n.保证，许诺，事业 | |
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indigenous
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| adj.土产的，土生土长的，本地的 | |
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plundered
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| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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invader
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| n.侵略者，侵犯者，入侵者 | |
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proceedings
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| n.进程，过程，议程；诉讼(程序)；公报 | |
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charcoal
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| n.炭，木炭，生物炭 | |
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crucible
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| n.坩锅，严酷的考验 | |
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flux
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| n.流动；不断的改变 | |
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81
bellows
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| n.风箱；发出吼叫声，咆哮（尤指因痛苦）( bellow的名词复数 )；（愤怒地）说出（某事），大叫v.发出吼叫声，咆哮（尤指因痛苦）( bellow的第三人称单数 )；（愤怒地）说出（某事），大叫 | |
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anvil
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| n.铁钻 | |
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chisels
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| n.凿子，錾子( chisel的名词复数 )；口凿 | |
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estuary
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| n.河口，江口 | |
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85
oars
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| n.桨，橹( oar的名词复数 )；划手v.划（行）( oar的第三人称单数 ) | |
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exquisite
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| adj.精美的；敏锐的；剧烈的，感觉强烈的 | |
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provincial
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| adj.省的，地方的；n．外省人，乡下人 | |
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88
antiquities
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| n.古老( antiquity的名词复数 )；古迹；古人们；古代的风俗习惯 | |
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allusion
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| n.暗示，间接提示 | |
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90
militia
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| n.民兵，民兵组织 | |
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cleft
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| n.裂缝；adj.裂开的 | |
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