"The Church," writes Windisch, "adopted towards pagan sagas, the same position that it adopted towards pagan law.... I see no sufficient ground for doubting that really genuine pictures of a pre-Christian culture are preserved to us in the individual sagas, pictures which are of course in some places faded, and in others painted over by a later hand."[1]
Again in his notes on the story of Déirdre, he remarks—
"The saga4 originated in pagan, and was propagated in Christian times, and that too without its seeking fresh nutriment as a rule from Christian elements. But we must ascribe it to the influence of Christianity that what is specifically pagan in Irish saga is blurred[Pg 252] over and forced into the background. And yet there exist many whose contents are plainly mythological6. The Christian monks7 were certainly not the first who reduced the ancient sagas to fixed8 form, but later on they copied them faithfully, and propagated them after Ireland had been converted to Christianity."
Zimmer too has come to the same conclusion.
"Nothing," he writes, "except a spurious criticism which takes for original and primitive9 the most palpable nonsense of which Middle-Irish writers from the twelfth to the sixteenth century are guilty with regard to their own antiquity10, which is in many respects strange and foreign to them: nothing but such a criticism can, on the other hand, make the attempt to doubt of the historical character of the chief persons of the Saga cycles.[2] For we believe that Mève, Conor mac Nessa, Cuchulain, and Finn mac Cúmhail, are exactly as much historical personalities11 as Arminius, or Dietrich of Bern, or Etzel, and their date is just as well determined12 as that of the above-mentioned heroes and kings, who are glorified13 in song by the Germans, even though, in the case of Irish heroes and kings, external witnesses are wanting.'"
M. d'Arbois de Jubainville expresses himself in like terms. "We have no reason," he writes, "to doubt of the reality of the principal r?le in this [cycle of Cuchulain];"[3] and of the story of the Boru tribute which was imposed on Leinster about a century later; he writes, "Le récit a pour base des faits réels, quoique certains détails aient été créés par14 l'imagination;" and again, "Irish epic15 story, barbarous though it is, is, like Irish law, a monument of a civilisation16 far superior to that of the most ancient Germans; if the Roman idea of the state was wanting to that civilisation, and, if that defect in it was a radical17 flaw, still there is an intellectual culture to be found[Pg 253] there, far more developed than amongst the primitive Germans.'"[4]
"Ireland, in fact," writes M. Darmesteter in his "English Studies," well summing up the legitimate18 conclusions from the works of the great Celtic scholars, "has the peculiar19 privilege of a history continuous from the earliest centuries of our era until the present day. She has preserved in the infinite wealth of her literature a complete and faithful picture of the ancient civilisation of the Celts. Irish literature is therefore the key which opens the Celtic world."
But the Celtic world means a large portion of Europe, and the key to unlock the door of its past history is in the Irish manuscripts of saga and poem. Without them the student would have to view the past history of Europe through the distorting glasses of the Greeks and Romans, to whom all outer nations were barbarians21, into whose social life they had no motive22 for inquiring. He would have no other means of estimating what were the feelings, modes of life, manners, and habits, of those great races who possessed23 so large a part of the ancient world, Gaul, Belgium, North Italy, parts of Germany, Spain, Switzerland, and the British Isles24; who burned Rome, plundered25 Greece, and colonised Asia Minor26. But in the Irish romances and historical sagas, he sees come to light another standard by which to measure. Through this early Irish peep-hole he gets a clear look at the life and manners of the race in one of its strongholds, from which he may conjecture27 and even assume a good deal with regard to the others.
That the pictures of social life and early society drawn28 in the Irish romances represent phases not common to the Irish alone, but to large portions of that Celtic race which once owned so much of Europe, may be surmised30 with some certainty from the way in which characteristics of the Celts barely mentioned by Greek and Roman writers re-appear amongst the Irish in all the intimate detail and fond expansion[Pg 254] of romance. M. d'Arbois de Jubainville has drawn attention to many such instances.
Posidonius, who was a friend of Cicero, and wrote about a hundred years before Christ, mentions a custom which existed in Gaul in his time of fighting at a feast for the best bit which was to be given to the most valiant31 warrior32. This custom, briefly33 noticed by Posidonius, might be passed by unnoticed by the ordinary reader, but the Irish one will remember the early romances of his race in which the curadh-mir or "heroes' bit" so largely figures. He will remember that it is upon this custom that one of the greatest sagas of the Cuchulain cycle, the feast of Bricriu, hinges. Bricriu, the Thersites of the Red Branch, having built a new and magnificent house, determines to invite King Conor and the other chieftains to a feast, for the house was very magnificent.
"The dining hall was built like that of the High-king at Tara. From the hearth34 to the wall were nine beds, and each of the side walls was thirty-five feet high and covered with ornaments35 of gilt36 bronze. Against one of the side walls of that palace was reared a royal bed destined37 for Conor,[5] king of Ulster, which looked down upon all the others. It was ornamented38 with carbuncles and precious stones and other gems39 of great price. The gold and silver and all sorts of jewellery which covered that bed shone with such splendour that the night was as brilliant as the day."
He had prepared a magnificent curadh-mir for the feast, consisting of a seven-year old pig, and a seven-year old cow that had been fed on milk and corn and the finest food since their birth, a hundred cakes of corn cooked with honey—and every[Pg 255] four cakes took a sack of corn to make them—and a vat40 of wine large enough to hold three of the warriors41 of the Ultonians. This magnificent "heroes' bit" he secretly promises to each of three warriors in turn, Laeghaire [Leary], Conall Cearnach, and Cuchulain, hoping to excite a quarrel among them. On the result of his expedient42 the saga turns.[6]
Again, C?sar tells us that when he invaded the Gauls they did not fight any longer in chariots, but it is recorded that they did so fight two hundred years before his time, even as the Persians fought against the Greeks, and as the Greeks themselves must have fought in a still earlier age commemorated43 by Homer. But in the Irish sagas we find this epic mode of warfare44 in full force. Every great man has his charioteer, they fight from their cars as in Homeric days, and much is told us of both steed, chariot and driver. In the above-mentioned saga of Bricriu's feast it is the charioteers of the three warriors who claim the heroes' bit for their masters, since they are apparently45 ashamed to make the first move themselves. The charioteer was more than a mere46 servant. Cuchulain sometimes calls his charioteer friend or master (popa), and on the occasion of his fight with Ferdiad desires him in case he (Cuchulain) should show signs of yielding, to "excite reproach and speak evil to me so that the ire of my rage and anger should grow the more on me, but if he give ground before me thou shalt laud47 me and praise me and speak good words to me that my courage may be the greater," and this command his friend and charioteer punctually executes.
The chariot itself is in many places graphically48[Pg 256] described. Here is how its approach is pourtrayed in the Táin—
"It was not long," says the chronicler, "until Ferdiad's charioteer heard the noise approaching, the clamour and the rattle49, and the whistling, and the tramp, and the thunder, and the clatter50 and the roar, namely the shield-noise of the light shields, and the hissing51 of the spears, and the loud clangour of the swords, and the tinkling53 of the helmet, and the ringing of the armour54, and the friction55 of the arms; the dangling56 of the missive weapons, the straining of the ropes, and the loud clattering57 of the wheels, and the creaking of the chariot, and the trampling58 of the horses, and the triumphant59 advance of the champion and the warrior towards the ford60 approaching him."
In the romance called the "Intoxication61 of the Ultonians," it is mentioned that they drave so fast in the wake of Cuchulain, that "the iron wheels of the chariots cut the roots of the immense trees." Here is how the romancist describes the advance of such a body upon Tara-Luachra.
"Not long were they there, the two watchers and the two druids, until a full fierce rush of the first band broke hither past the glen. Such was the fury with which they advanced that there was not left a spear on a rack, nor a shield on a spike62, nor a sword in an armoury in Tara-Luachra that did not fall down. From every house on which was thatch63 in Tara-Luachra it fell in immense flakes64. One would think that it was the sea that had come over the walls and over the corners of the world upon them. The forms of countenances65 were changed, and there was chattering66 of teeth in Tara-Luachra within. The two druids fell in fits and in faintings and in paroxysms, one of them out over the wall and the other over the wall inside."
On another occasion the approach of Cuchulain's chariot is thus described—
"Like a mering were the two dykes67 which the iron wheels of Cuchulain's chariot made on that day of the sides of the road. Like flocks of dark birds pouring over a vast plain were the blocks and round sods and turves of the earth which the horses would cast away behind them against the ... of the wind. Like a flock of swans pouring over a vast plain was the foam68 which they flung before them over the muzzles69 of their bridles70. Like the smoke from a royal[Pg 257] hostel71 was the dust and breath of the dense72 vapour, because of the vehemence73 of the driving which Liag, son of Riangabhra, on that day gave to the two steeds of Cuchulain."[7]
Elsewhere the chariot itself is described as "wythe-wickered, two bright bronze wheels, a white pole of bright silver with a veining74 of white bronze, a very high creaking body, having its firm sloping sides ornamented with cred (tin?), a back-arched rich golden yoke75, two rich yellow-peaked alls, hardened sword-straight axle-spindles." Laeghaire's chariot is described in another piece as "a chariot wythe-wickered, two firm black wheels, two pliant76 beautiful reins77, hardened sword-straight axle-spindles, a new fresh-polished body, a back-arched rich silver-mounted yoke, two rich-yellow peaked alls ... a bird plume78 of the usual feathers over the body of the chariot."[8]
Descriptions like these are constantly occurring in the Irish tales, and enable us to realise better the heroic period of warfare and to fill up in our imagination many a long-regretted lacuna in our knowledge of primitive Europe.
"Those philosophers," says Diodorus Siculus, a Greek writer of the Augustan age, speaking of the Druids, "like the lyric79 poets called bards80, have a great authority both in affairs of peace and war, friends and enemies listen to them. Also when the two armies are in presence of one another and swords drawn and spears couched, they throw themselves into the midst of the combatants and appease81 them as though they were charming wild beasts. Thus even amongst the most savage82 barbarians anger submits to the rule of wisdom, and the god of war pays homage83 to the Muses84."
To show that the manners and customs of the Keltoi or Celts of whom Diodorus speaks were in this respect identical with those of their Irish cousins (or brothers), and to give another instance of the warm light shed by Irish literature upon the early customs of Western Europe I shall convert the abstract[Pg 258] into the concrete by a page or two from an Irish romance, not an old one,[9] but one which no doubt preserves many original traditionary traits. In this story Finn mac Cúmhail or Cool[10] at a great feast in his fort at Allen asks Goll about some tribute which he claimed, and is dissatisfied at the answer of Goll, who may be called the Ajax of the Fenians. After that there arose a quarrel at the feast, the rise of which is thus graphically pourtrayed—
"'Goll,' said Finn, 'you have acknowledged in that speech that you came from the city of Beirbhé to the battle of Cnoca, and that you slew85 my father there, and it is a bold and disobedient thing of you to tell me that,' said Finn.
"'By my hand, O Finn,' said Goll, 'if you were to dishonour86 me as your father did, I would give you the same payment that I gave Cool.'
"'Goll,' said Finn, 'I would be well able not to let that word pass with you, for I have a hundred valiant warriors in my following for every one that is in yours.'
"'Your father had that also,' said Goll, 'and yet I avenged87 my dishonour on him, and I would do the same to you if you were to deserve it of me.'
"White-skinned Carroll O Baoisgne[11] spake, and 't is what he said: 'O Goll,' said he, 'there is many a man,' said he, 'to silence you and your people in the household of Finn mac Cúmhail.'
"Bald cursing Conan mac Morna spake, and 't is what he said, 'I swear by my arms of valour,' said he, 'that Goll, the day he has least men, has a man and a hundred in his household, and not a man of them but would silence you.'
"'Are you one of those, perverse88, bald-headed Conan?' said Carroll.
"'I am one of them, black-visaged, nail-torn, skin-scratched, little-strength Carroll,' says Conan, 'and I would soon prove it to you that Cúmhail was in the wrong.'
[Pg 259]
"It was then that Carroll arose, and he struck a daring fist, quick and ready, upon Conan, and there was no submission90 in Conan's answer, for he struck the second fist on Carroll in the middle of his face and his teeth."
Upon this the chronicler relates how first one joined in and then another, until at last all the adherents91 of Goll and Finn and even the captains themselves are hard at work. "After that," he adds, "bad was the place for a mild, smooth-fingered woman or a weak or infirm person, or an aged89, long-lived elder." This terrific fight continued "from the beginning of the night till the rising of the sun in the morning," and was only stopped—just as Diodorus says battles were stopped—by the intervention92 of the bards.
"It was then," says the romancist, "that the prophesying93 poet of the pointed94 words, that guerdon-full good man of song, Fergus Finnbheóil, rose up, and all the Fenians' men of science along with him, and they sang their hymns95 and good poems, and their perfect lays to those heroes to silence and to soften96 them. It was then they ceased from their slaughtering97 and maiming, on hearing the music of the poets, and they let their weapons fall to earth, and the poets took up their weapons and they went between them, and grasped them with the grasp of reconciliation98."
When the palace was cleared out it was found that 1,100 of Finn's people had been killed between men and women, and eleven men and fifty women of Goll's party.
C?sar speaks of the numbers who frequented the schools of the druids in Gaul; "it is said," he adds, "that they learn there a great number of verses, and that is why some of those pupils spend twenty years in learning. It is not, according to the druids, permissible99 to entrust100 verses to writing although they use the Greek alphabet in all other affairs public and private." Of this prohibition101 to commit their verses to paper, we have no trace, so far as I know, in our literature, but the accounts of the early bardic102 schools entirely103 bear out the description here given of them by C?sar, and again shows the solidarity104 of custom which seems to have existed between the[Pg 260] various Celtic tribes. According to our early manuscripts it took from nine to twelve years for a student to take the highest degree at the bardic schools, and in many cases where the pupil failed to master sufficiently105 the subjects of the year, he had probably to spend two over it, so that it is quite possible that some might spend twenty years over their learning. And much of this learning was, as C?sar notes, in verse. Many earlier law tracts106 appear to have been so, and even many of the earliest romances. There is a very interesting account extant called the "Proceedings107 of the Great Bardic Association," which leads up to the Epic of the Táin Bo Chuailgne, the greatest of the Irish romances, according to which this great tale was at one time lost, and the great Bardic Institution was commanded to hunt for and recover it. The fact of it being said that the perfect tale was lost for ever "and that only a fragmentary and broken form of it would go down to posterity108" perhaps indicates, as has been pointed out by Sullivan, "that the filling up the gaps in the poem by prose narrative109 is meant." In point of fact the tale, as we have it now, consists half of verse and half of prose. Nor is this peculiar to the Táin. Most of the oldest and many of the modern tales are composed in this way. In most cases the verse is of a more archaic110 character and more difficult than the prose. In very many an expanded prose narrative of several pages is followed by a more condensed poem saying the same thing. So much did the Irish at last come to look upon it as a matter of course that every romance should be interspersed111 with poetry, that even writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries who consciously invented their stories as a modern novelist invents his, have interspersed their pieces with passages, in verse, as did Comyn in his Turlough mac Stairn, as did the author of the Son of Ill-counsel, the author of the Parliament of Clan52 Lopus, the author of the Women's Parliament, and others. We may take it, then, that in the earliest days the romances were composed in verse and learned by heart by the students—possibly[Pg 261] before any alphabet was known at all; afterwards when lacun? occurred through defective112 memory on the part of the reciter he filled up the gaps with prose. Those who committed to paper our earliest tales wrote down as much of the old poetry as they could recollect113 or had access to, and wrote the connecting narrative in prose. Hence it soon came to pass that if a story pretended to any antiquity it had to be interspersed with verses, and at last it happened that the Irish taste became so confirmed to this style of writing that authors adopted it, as I have said, even in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
In spite of the mythological and phantastic elements which are undoubtedly114 mingled115 with the oldest sagas,
"the manners and customs in which the men of the time lived and moved, are depicted116," writes Windisch,[12] "with a na?ve realism which leaves no room for doubt as to the former actuality of the scenes depicted. In matter of costume and weapons, eating and drinking, building and arrangement of the banqueting-hall, manners observed at the feast, and much more, we find here the most valuable information." "I insist upon it," he says in another place, "that Irish saga is the only richly-flowing source of unbroken Celtism."
All the remaining linguistic117 monuments of Breton, Cornish, and Welsh, "would form," writes M. d'Arbois de Jubainville,
"un ensemble118 bien incomplet et bien obscur sans la lumière que la littérature irlandaise projette sur ces débris. C'est le vieil irlandais qui forme le trait d'union pour ainsi dire119 entre les dialectes neo-celtiques de la fin3 du moyen age ou des temps modernes, et le Gaulois des inscriptions120 lapidaires, des monnaies, des noms propres conservés par la littérature grecque et la littérature romaine."[13]
It may, then, be finally acknowledged that those of the great nations of to-day, whose ancestors were mostly Celts, but whose language, literature, and traditions have completely disappeared, must, if they wish to study their own past, turn[Pg 262] themselves first to Ireland. When we find so much of the brief and scanty121 information given us by the classics, not only borne out, but amply illustrated122 by old Irish literature, when we find the dry bones of Posidonius and C?sar rise up again before us with a ruddy covering of flesh and blood, it is not too much to surmise29 that in other matters also the various Celtic races bore to each other a close resemblance.
Much more could be said upon this subject, as that the four Gallo-Roman inscriptions to Brigantia found in Great Britain are really to the Goddess Brigit;[14] that the Brennus who burned Rome 390 years before Christ and the Brennus who stormed Delphi 110 years later were only the god Brian, under whose tutelage the Gauls marched; and that Lugudunum, Lugh's Dún or fortress123, is so-called from the god Lugh the Long-handed, to whom two Celtic inscriptions are found, one in Spain and one in Switzerland, as may be seen set forth124 at length in the volumes of Monsieur d'Arbois de Jubainville.
********
[1] "Ich sehe daher keinen genügenden Grund daran zu zweifeln dass uns in den20 Einzelsagen wirklich echte Bilder einer vorchristlichen Cultur erhalten sind, allerdings Bilder die an einigen Stellen verblasst, an andern von spaterer Hand übermalt sind" ("Irische Texte," 1., p. 253).
[2] "Nur eine Afterkritik die den handgreiflichsten Unsinn durch den mittelirische Schreiber des 12-16 Jahrh. sich am eigenem Altherthum versündigen das ihnen in mancher Hinsicht fremd ist für urf?ngliche Weisheit h?lt, nun125 eine solche Kritik kann, umgekehrt den Versuch machen an dem historischen Character der Hauptperson beider Sagenkreise zu zweifeln," etc. ("Kelt-Studien," Heft. II., p. 189).
[3] "Introduction à l'étude de la littérature celtique," p. 217.
[4] Preface to "L'épopée Celtique en Irlande."
[5] This name is written Concobar in the ancient texts, and Conchúbhair in the modern language, pronounced Cun-hoo-ar or Cun-hoor, whence the Anglicised form Conor. The "b" was in early times pronounced, but there are traces of its being dropped as early as the twelfth century, though with that orthographical126 conservatism which so distinguishes the Irish language, it has been preserved down to the present day. Zimmer says he found it spelt Conchor in the twelfth-century book the Liber Landavensis. From this the form Crochor ("cr" for "cn" as is usual in Connacht) followed, and the name is now pronounced either Cun-a-char or Cruch-oor.
[6] The reminiscence of the hero-bit appears to have lingered on in folk memory. A correspondent, Mr. Terence Kelly, from near Omagh, in the county Tyrone, tells me that he often heard a story told by an old shanachie and herb-doctor in that neighbourhood who spoke127 a half-Scotch dialect of English, in which the hero-bit figured, but it had fallen in magnificence, and was represented as bannocks and butter with some minor delicacies128.
[7] See "Revue Celtique," vol. xiv. p. 417, translated by Whitley Stokes.
[8] Leabhar na h-Uidhre, p. 122, col. 2, translated by Sullivan, "Manners and Customs," vol. i. p. cccclxxviii.
[9] In Irish Fionn mac Cúmhail, pronounced "Finn (or Fewn in Munster), mac Coo-wil" or "Cool."
[10] I translated this from manuscript in my possession made by one Patrick O'Pronty (an ancestor, I think, of Charlotte Bront?) in 1763. Mr. Standish Hayes O'Grady has since published a somewhat different text of it.
[11] Pronounced "Bweesg-na," the triphthong aoi is always pronounced like ee in Irish.
[12] "Irische Texte," 1., p. 252.
[13] "études grammaticales sur les langues Celtiques," 1881, p. vii.
[14] See above pp. 53 and 161.
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Christian
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| adj.基督教徒的；n.基督教徒 | |
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accretions
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| n.堆积( accretion的名词复数 )；连生；添加生长；吸积 | |
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fin
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| n.鳍；(飞机的)安定翼 | |
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saga
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| n.(尤指中世纪北欧海盗的)故事，英雄传奇 | |
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sagas
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| n.萨迦（尤指古代挪威或冰岛讲述冒险经历和英雄业绩的长篇故事）( saga的名词复数 )；（讲述许多年间发生的事情的）长篇故事；一连串的事件（或经历）；一连串经历的讲述（或记述） | |
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mythological
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monks
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fixed
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primitive
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antiquity
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personalities
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| n. 诽谤，（对某人容貌、性格等所进行的）人身攻击； 人身攻击；人格, 个性, 名人( personality的名词复数 ) | |
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determined
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glorified
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| 美其名的，变荣耀的 | |
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par
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| n.标准，票面价值，平均数量；adj.票面的，平常的，标准的 | |
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epic
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civilisation
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radical
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legitimate
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peculiar
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barbarians
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motive
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possessed
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isles
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plundered
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| 掠夺，抢劫( plunder的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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minor
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conjecture
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drawn
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surmise
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surmised
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valiant
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warrior
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| n.勇士，武士，斗士 | |
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33
briefly
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| adv.简单地，简短地 | |
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34
hearth
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| n.壁炉炉床，壁炉地面 | |
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35
ornaments
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| n.装饰( ornament的名词复数 )；点缀；装饰品；首饰v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的第三人称单数 ) | |
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36
gilt
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| adj.镀金的；n.金边证券 | |
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37
destined
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| adj.命中注定的；(for)以…为目的地的 | |
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38
ornamented
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| adj.花式字体的v.装饰，点缀，美化( ornament的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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39
gems
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| growth； economy； management； and customer satisfaction 增长 | |
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40
vat
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| n.(=value added tax)增值税，大桶 | |
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41
warriors
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| 武士，勇士，战士( warrior的名词复数 ) | |
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42
expedient
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| adj.有用的，有利的；n.紧急的办法，权宜之计 | |
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43
commemorated
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| v.纪念，庆祝( commemorate的过去式和过去分词 ) | |
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44
warfare
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| n.战争(状态)；斗争；冲突 | |
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45
apparently
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| adv.显然地；表面上，似乎 | |
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46
mere
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| adj.纯粹的；仅仅，只不过 | |
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47
laud
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| n.颂歌；v.赞美 | |
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48
graphically
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| adv.通过图表；生动地，轮廓分明地 | |
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49
rattle
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| v.飞奔，碰响；激怒；n.碰撞声；拨浪鼓 | |
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50
clatter
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| v./n.(使)发出连续而清脆的撞击声 | |
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51
hissing
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| n. 发嘶嘶声, 蔑视 动词hiss的现在分词形式 | |
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52
clan
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| n.氏族，部落，宗族，家族，宗派 | |
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53
tinkling
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| n.丁当作响声 | |
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54
armour
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| （=armor）n.盔甲；装甲部队 | |
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55
friction
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| n.摩擦，摩擦力 | |
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56
dangling
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| 悬吊着( dangle的现在分词 )； 摆动不定； 用某事物诱惑…； 吊胃口 | |
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57
clattering
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| 发出咔哒声（clatter的现在分词形式） | |
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58
trampling
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| 踩( trample的现在分词 )； 践踏； 无视； 侵犯 | |
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59
triumphant
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| adj.胜利的，成功的；狂欢的，喜悦的 | |
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60
Ford
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| n.浅滩，水浅可涉处；v.涉水，涉过 | |
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61
intoxication
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| n.wild excitement;drunkenness；poisoning | |
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62
spike
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| n.长钉，钉鞋；v.以大钉钉牢，使...失效 | |
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63
thatch
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| vt.用茅草覆盖…的顶部；n.茅草(屋) | |
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64
flakes
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| 小薄片( flake的名词复数 )； （尤指）碎片； 雪花； 古怪的人 | |
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65
countenances
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| n.面容( countenance的名词复数 )；表情；镇静；道义支持 | |
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66
chattering
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| n. （机器振动发出的）咔嗒声，(鸟等)鸣，啁啾 adj. 喋喋不休的，啾啾声的 动词chatter的现在分词形式 | |
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67
dykes
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| abbr.diagonal wire cutters 斜线切割机n.堤( dyke的名词复数 )；坝；堰；沟 | |
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68
foam
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| v./n.泡沫，起泡沫 | |
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69
muzzles
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| 枪口( muzzle的名词复数 )； （防止动物咬人的）口套； （四足动物的）鼻口部； （狗）等凸出的鼻子和口 | |
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70
bridles
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| 约束( bridle的名词复数 )； 限动器； 马笼头； 系带 | |
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71
hostel
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| n.（学生）宿舍，招待所 | |
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72
dense
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| a.密集的，稠密的，浓密的；密度大的 | |
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73
vehemence
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| n.热切；激烈；愤怒 | |
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74
veining
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| n.脉络分布；矿脉 | |
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75
yoke
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| n.轭；支配；v.给...上轭，连接，使成配偶 | |
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76
pliant
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| adj.顺从的；可弯曲的 | |
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77
reins
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| 感情，激情； 缰( rein的名词复数 )； 控制手段； 掌管； （成人带着幼儿走路以防其走失时用的）保护带 | |
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plume
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| n.羽毛；v.整理羽毛，骚首弄姿，用羽毛装饰 | |
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79
lyric
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| n.抒情诗，歌词；adj.抒情的 | |
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80
bards
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| n.诗人( bard的名词复数 ) | |
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81
appease
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| v.安抚，缓和，平息，满足 | |
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82
savage
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| adj.野蛮的；凶恶的，残暴的；n.未开化的人 | |
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83
homage
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| n.尊敬，敬意，崇敬 | |
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84
muses
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| v.沉思，冥想( muse的第三人称单数 )；沉思自语说（某事） | |
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85
slew
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| v.（使）旋转；n.大量，许多 | |
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86
dishonour
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| n./vt.拒付（支票、汇票、票据等）；vt.凌辱，使丢脸；n.不名誉，耻辱，不光彩 | |
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87
avenged
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| v.为…复仇，报…之仇( avenge的过去式和过去分词 )；为…报复 | |
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88
perverse
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| adj.刚愎的；坚持错误的，行为反常的 | |
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89
aged
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| adj.年老的，陈年的 | |
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90
submission
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| n.服从，投降；温顺，谦虚；提出 | |
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91
adherents
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| n.支持者，拥护者( adherent的名词复数 )；党羽；徒子徒孙 | |
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92
intervention
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| n.介入，干涉，干预 | |
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93
prophesying
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| v.预告，预言( prophesy的现在分词 ) | |
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94
pointed
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| adj.尖的，直截了当的 | |
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95
hymns
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| n.赞美诗，圣歌，颂歌( hymn的名词复数 ) | |
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96
soften
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| v.(使)变柔软；(使)变柔和 | |
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97
slaughtering
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| v.屠杀，杀戮，屠宰( slaughter的现在分词 ) | |
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98
reconciliation
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| n.和解，和谐，一致 | |
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99
permissible
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| adj.可允许的，许可的 | |
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100
entrust
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| v.信赖，信托，交托 | |
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101
prohibition
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| n.禁止；禁令，禁律 | |
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102
bardic
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| adj.吟游诗人的 | |
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103
entirely
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| ad.全部地，完整地；完全地，彻底地 | |
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104
solidarity
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| n.团结；休戚相关 | |
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105
sufficiently
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| adv.足够地，充分地 | |
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106
tracts
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| 大片土地( tract的名词复数 )； 地带； （体内的）道； （尤指宣扬宗教、伦理或政治的）短文 | |
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107
proceedings
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| n.进程，过程，议程；诉讼(程序)；公报 | |
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108
posterity
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| n.后裔，子孙，后代 | |
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109
narrative
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| n.叙述，故事；adj.叙事的，故事体的 | |
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110
archaic
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| adj.(语言、词汇等)古代的，已不通用的 | |
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111
interspersed
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| adj.[医]散开的；点缀的v.intersperse的过去式和过去分词 | |
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112
defective
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| adj.有毛病的，有问题的，有瑕疵的 | |
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113
recollect
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| v.回忆，想起，记起，忆起，记得 | |
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114
undoubtedly
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| adv.确实地，无疑地 | |
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115
mingled
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| 混合，混入( mingle的过去式和过去分词 )； 混进，与…交往[联系] | |
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116
depicted
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| 描绘，描画( depict的过去式和过去分词 )； 描述 | |
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117
linguistic
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| adj.语言的，语言学的 | |
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118
ensemble
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| n.合奏(唱)组；全套服装；整体，总效果 | |
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119
dire
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| adj.可怕的，悲惨的，阴惨的，极端的 | |
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120
inscriptions
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| （作者）题词( inscription的名词复数 )； 献词； 碑文； 证劵持有人的登记 | |
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121
scanty
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| adj.缺乏的，仅有的，节省的，狭小的，不够的 | |
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122
illustrated
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| adj. 有插图的，列举的 动词illustrate的过去式和过去分词 | |
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123
fortress
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| n.堡垒，防御工事 | |
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124
forth
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| adv.向前；向外，往外 | |
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125
nun
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| n.修女，尼姑 | |
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126
orthographical
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| adj.正字法的，拼字正确的 | |
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127
spoke
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| n.（车轮的）辐条；轮辐；破坏某人的计划；阻挠某人的行动 v.讲，谈（speak的过去式）；说；演说；从某种观点来说 | |
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128
delicacies
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| n.棘手( delicacy的名词复数 )；精致；精美的食物；周到 | |
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